The history of Cuba

Wi

^^

fe:S^$i5

9r^«iC2vc<:<'

/

FRANCISCO DE FRIAS

One of the foremost agricultural and economic scientists of his
time, Francisco de Frias y Jacott, Count of Pozos Dulces, was
born in Havana on September 24, 1809, and died in Paris, France,
on October 24, 1877. He studied in the United States and Eu-
rope, specializing in physics and chemistry, and then sought to
devote his genius to the economic welfare of Cuba. He wrote
notable works on Cattle Breeding, on Chemical Research, and on
Labor and Population. His patriotic spirit provoked Captain-
General Canedo to banish him for a time, but on his return as
editor of El Siglo he conducted so powerful a campaign for social,
economic, political and administrative reforms that the Spanish
government was constrained to heed him and to plan new legisla-
tion for Cuba. For this purpose it formed a Junta of Information,
of which he was a member representing Santa Clara. Upon the
failure of that body he wrote a memorable protest against the policy
which had compelled that result, and a year later removed to
Paris.

ib has M)<il

uos ii'iil: iimado ban ;^i]i;i-jyqh yrfOT

.. .. .UJTl b'ui fir." ii:i-' 'Knit /,,)

Jaiyy^ to'i agii- , V<'. i?t 1o TotibM

'• '■—■■'■' ■ '' ~ iji-.,. •;,.M--^ - ■ ■ • -y,

:jrl| {to<r'T .F.7a\1 -^i^'f;?* ■"n.ftn-^'-.-'fr-r T;dfT'"m ■/; ^j

'pifoq /J.iOii lii ! i;'i

J-rish

THE
HISTORY OF CUBA

BY

WILLIS FLETCHER JOHNSON

A.M., L.H.D. ''

Author of "A Century of Expansion," "Four Centuries of

the Panama Canal," "America's Foreign Relations"

Honorary Professor of the History of American Foreign

Relations io New York. University

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS

Volume Five

NEW YORK

B. F. BUCK & COMPANY, Inc.

156 Fifth Avenue
1920

Copyright, 1920,
By century HISTORY CO.

All rights reserved

Knterkd at Stationers Hall
london, england.

PRINTED IX U. S. A

RCPUBUICA DK CUBA

SECRETARIA DE A6RICULTURA, COMERCiO Y TRABAJO

Halsana, Cuba,
July 11, 1919.

TO WHOll IT MAY CONCERN:

The information in
this volume pertaining to Cuba and her
natural reacurcee, climate, soil, mines,
forests, fisheries, agricultural products,
lands, rivers, harbors, mountains, mineral
zones, quarries, foreign and domestic com-
merce, business opportunities, etc., has
been compiled under the auspices of the
Department of Agriculture, Conamerce and
Labor, and has been verified by the Bureau
of Information.

It ie intended to
Acquaint the world with the truth and
actual facts in regard to Cuba, and for the
guidance of those who may be interested.

Respectfu

JBCRBTARY OF AGRICULTURB
COMERCS & LABOR.

PREFACE

Nature designed Cuba for greatness. That salient
fact is written large and clear upon every page of the
island's history. He must lack vision who can not dis-
cern it even in the annals of political, military and social
development of the Cuban nation. Although one of the
earliest lands in the Western Hemisphere to be discovered
and colonized, it was actually the last of all to be erected
into political independence and thus to enter into an
opportunity for improving fully the incomparable opul-
ence of its natural endo^inent. No land ever shows of
what it is capable until it is permitted to do so for its
own sake and in its own name.

During the long and tedious centuries of Spanish dom-
ination, therefore, the resources of Cuba remained largely
latent. That is to be said in full view of the notorious
fact that the island was openly declared to be *'the
milch cow of Spain." In those two facts appears per-
haps the most impressive of all possible testimonies to
the surpassing richness of the island. If while it was
a mere colony, only partially developed and indeed with
its resources only in part explored and imperfectly un-
derstood, and with the supreme incentive to enterprise
denied it — if in these unfavorable circumstances, we say,
it could be a source of so great revenue to Spain and in
spite of thus being plundered and drained could still ac-
cumulate so considerable a competence for its ovm peo-
ple, what must its material opulence prove to be under
its own free rule, with every advantage and every en-
couragement for its full development according to the
knowledge of Twentieth Century science?

k

vi PREFACE

We need not be fanciful or visionary if we believe that
some important purpose was subserved in such with-
holding of Cuba from complete development until so late
a date. Her neighbors went on ahead, developing their
resources, and passing through all the political and social
vicissitudes of which colonial and national experience is
capable, inevitably with a great proportion of sheer loss
through ill-directed experimentation. Cuba on the con-
trary remained held in abeyance until in the fulness of
time she could profit from the experience' and example of
others and thus gain her development at a minimum of
effort and expense and with a maximum of net profit.

The beneficent design of nature, to which we have
alluded, is to be seen, moreover, in the inherent condi-
tions of insular existence. No other great island of the
world is so fortunate in its geographical placing, either
strategically or climatically, nor is any other comparable
with it in topography and material arrangement and com-
position. It lies midway between the two great con-
tinents of the Western Hemisphere, within easy reach of
both across land-locked seas, where it receives the com-
merce of both and serves as a mart of exchange between
them. Similarly it lies between the Temperate Zone and
the Torrid Zone, so as to receive at its very doors the
products of each and of both, the products, that is to
say, of all the world. Nor is it less significant that it
lies directly upon the line of commerce and travel not
only between North and South but equally between East
and West, on the line of passage between the Atlantic
and the Pacific and between the lands which border the
one and those which occupy the shores of the other.
Such strategic position — the strategy of commerce — is
unique and incommensurable in value.

Equally beneficent is the climatic situation of Cuba.
Mathematically lying just within the tropical zone, it in
fact enjoys a temperance of climate surpassing that of
the temperate zone itself. It has all the geniality of the

PREFACE vii

regions which lie to the south of it, so that it can pro-
duct all the fruits of the sultry tropics in profusion
throughout a year-round season of growth ; yet it escapes
the oppressive and enervating heat which makes life in
those lands burdensome to the visitor and indolent to the
native. It has the comfort and the tonic properties of
northern climes, yet without the trying and sometimes dis-
astrous fluctuations and extremes which too often there
prevail. As a result, Cuba can produce, if not always in
fullest perfection yet with a gratifying degree of suc-
cess, practically all the vegetable life of the world, from
that which thrives close to the Arctic Circle to that which
luxuriates upon the Equator.

In coastal contour, and thus in profusion of fine har-
bors, Cuba enjoys preeminence among the countries of
the world. In varied contour of mountain, valley and
plain, in endowment with springs and rivers, she is con-
spicuously fortunate. The often-quoted tribute which
her first discoverer paid spontaneously to her magic
beauty has been repeated and confirmed uncounted times,
with a deeper significance as it has been found that the
beauty of this island is not merely superficial but in-
trinsic, and that Cuba is as hospitable to the interests and
welfare of the visitor and resident as she is fair to the
passing eye.

It is a grateful task to dwell in these pages upon the
varied and opulent resources of the island, in all the
natural conditions of the mineral, the vegetable and the
animal kingdoms. We shall see that the hopes and
dreams of the early conquerors, of rich mines of gold,
have been far more than realized in other ways which they
knew not of. The mines of what they regarded as base
metals, and of metals unknown to them, are richer far
than they ever hoped deposits of the "precious" metal
to be, while the products of forests and plantations are
immeasurably richer still. To-day Cuba stands before

viii PREFACE

the world a Treasure Island of incomparable worth even
in her present estate, and of an assured potentiality of
future opulence which dazzles the imagination.

We shall see, too, most grateful and inspiring of all,
how at last the people of Cuba have come into their own
and are improving the vast endowment with which na-
ture has so bounteously provided them. It has been
only since they gained their independence that they could
or would do this; the result being that a score of years
have seen more progress than the twenty score preceding.
Indeed we may say that the great bulk of this progress
has been achieved in the last six or seven years, the ear-
lier years of independence being unfortunately marred
with untoward circumstances of dissension and revolt
which held in check the progress which the island should
have made. But with the final establishment of a gov-
ernment capable of fulfilling all its appropriate func-
tions, the advance of Cuba has been and is to-day swift
and unerring.

The taking advantage of natural conditions and re-
sources through scientific applications, the organization
and administration of such governmental institutions as
best conduce to the security, the prosperity and the hap-
piness of a self-governing people, are agreeable themes
to contemplate and are profitable to study. We shall
see how agriculture, mining, manufactures and commerce
have been promoted in both extent and character. We
shall see how all parts of the island realm have been made
accessible, for business or for pleasure, with railroads
and a marvellous system of highways for motor vehicles.
We shall learn of the sanitation of what was once a
pestilence infested land until it has become one of the
three or four most healthful in the world.

We shall see, too, the practical creation and universal
development of a scheme of free popular education which
to-day gives to what was within the memory of living
men one of the most illiterate of countries such school

PREFACE ix

facilities as scarcely any other can surpass. If we were
writing in this volume of some long-established Com-
monwealth, with many generations, perhaps centuries, of
progress and culture behind it, we should not be able to
restrain our admiration of much that has been accom-
plished. When we consider that we are writing of a
land that suffered nearly four centuries of repression and
oppression, followed by a dozen years of devastating
strife, and less than twenty years ago began to live the
free life of a sovereign people, we are entranced with
amazement at the memory of what Cuba has been, with
appreciation of what she is, and with the assured prom-
ise of what she is to be.

It was a fascinating task to trace the story of her
existence in its many phases, largely of vicissitude, from
the days of Diego Velasquez to those of Mario Menocal.
But that after all was a record of w^hat has been, of
what has largely passed away. More welcome is it to
contemplate what Cuba actually is, in present realiza-
tion and achievement, and to scan with sane and dis-
criminating vision the prospect of what she may be and
what, we may well believe with confidence, she will be.
It is to reveal the actual Cuba of to-day, and to suggest
the surely promised Cuba of to-morrow, that these pages
are written. So far as they may seem technical and
statistical, their very dryness contains a potency of sug-
gestion surpassing the dreams of romance. So far as
they may seem touched with imagination, speculation,
enthusiasm, they are still based upon the practical and
indubitable foundation of ascertained facts. Their aim
is to present to the world an accurate, comprehensive and
sympathetic living picture of the Twentieth Century Re-
public of Cuba, and as such they are submitted to the
reader with a cheerful confidence, if not always in the
adequacy of its treatment, at least in the unfailing in-
terest and merit of the theme.

January, 1920.

Willis Fletcher Johnson.

CONTENTS

PAOB

Chapter I. The People of Cuba 1

The People of Cuba — Hospitality Their Characteristic — Love of
Children — Founders of the Cuban Nation from the Southern
Provinces of Spain — An Admixture of French Blood — Immigra-
tion from Northern Spain — English, Irish, Italian and German
Immigrants — Colonists from the United States.

Chapter II. The Topography of Cuba 10

The Topography of Cuba — Five Distinct Zones — The Mountain
Ranges — Plateaus and Plains — The Highest Peak in Cuba — The
Organ Mountains — Beautiful Valleys and Fertile Plains — Action
of the Water Courses — Character of the Soil.

Chapter III. The Climate of Cuba 19

The Climate of Cuba — Freedom from Extremes of Temperatvire
— Influence of the Trade Winds — No Ice and Little Frost — The
Rainy Season and the Dry Season — Gloomy Days Practically
Unknown.

Chapter IV. Province of Havana 21

The Province of Havana — The Pivotal Province of the Island —
Visits by Columbus and Velasquez — Topography of the Province
— Soil and Products — Agricultural Wealth — The Fruit Industry
— Manufactxiring — The Harbor of Havana — Transportation Fa-
cilities— The Water Supply — The Climate — The Seat of Govern-
ment and Social Centre of the Island.

Chapter V. Province of Pinar del Rio 34

The Province of Pinar del Rio — A Pictiiresque Region — ^Inter-
esting Topography — The Organ Mountains — The Vinales Val-
ley— A Rare Palm Tree — Hard Wood Timber — Agriculture —
Harbors and Fishing Interests — Tobacco Lands of the Vuelta
Abajo — Coffee Plantations — Mineral Resources.

Chapter VI. Province of Matanzas 49

The Province of Matanzas — Comparatively Unimportant in His-
tory— A Great Drainage and Traffic Canal — ^Rivers and Moim-

xi

xii CONTENTS

vMom

tains — The Coast and Islands — ^The Henequen Industry — ^The
City of Matanzas — The Caves of Bdlamar — Sugar Production —
Mineral Resources.

Chapter VII. Province of Santa Clara 60

The Province of Santa Clara — A Land of Great Variety of
Scenes — Ancient Gold-Seeking — The Mountain Ranges — Rich
Lands of the Parks and Valleys — Rivers and Lakes — Harbors —
Cities of the Province — The "Swamp of the Shoe" — Forests,
Sugar Plantations, Tobacco, and Coffee — Opportunities for Stock
Raising.

Chapter VIII. Province of Camaguey 71

The Province of Camaguey — Where Columbus First Landed —
In the Days of Velasquez — Events of the Ten Years' War — To-
pography of the Province — Mountain Ranges — Rivers and
Coastal Lagoons — Harbors — Lack of Railroads — The Sugar In-
dustry— Minerals — American Colonies — Some Noted Men.

Chapter IX. Province of Oriente 83

The Province of Oriente — Area and Topography — ^Moimtains
and Rivers — Fine Harbors — Great Sugar Mills^Scene of the
First Spanish Settlement in Cuba — The Bay of Guantanamo —
Santiago de Cuba — Copper Mines — Manzanillo — The Cauto Val-
ley— Sugar Plantations and Stock Ranches — Timber and Minerals
— American Colonies.

Chapter X. The Isle of Penes 99

The Isle of Pines — An Integral Part of Cuba — American Set-
tlements and Claims — Character of the Island — Infertile and
Storm Swept — Vast Deposits of Muck — ^Marble Quarries — Ef-
forts to Promote Agricultural Interests.

Chapter XI, Mines and Mining 104

Mines and Mining — The Early Quest of Gold — First Working
of Copper Mines — The Wealth of El Cobre — Copper in All Parts
of Cuba — Operations in Pinar del Rio — Vast Iron Deposits in
Oriente — Nickel and Manganese — Exports of Ore — American In-
vestigation of Chrome Deposits — ^Many Beds of Great Richness
— Manganese and Chrome for All the World.

Chapter XII. Asphalt and Petroleum 126

Asphalt and Petroleum — Ocampo's Early Discovery at Puerto
Carenas — Humboldt's Reports of Petrolexmi Wells — Prospecting
for Oil in Many Places — Some Promising Wells — Asphalt De-
posits of Great Value — Prospects for Important Petroleum De-
velopments.

CONTENTS xiii

VAOK

Chapter XIII. Forestry 135

Forestry — Vast Resources of Fine Woods Recklessly Squandered
in Early Times — Houses Built of Mahogany — Hundreds of Va-
rieties of Valuable Timber Trees — A Catalogue of Sixty of the
Most Useful — Need of Transportation for the Lumber Trade —
Forests Owned by the State.

Chapter XIV. Agriculture 144

Agriculture — The Chief Interest of Cuba — Fertility of Soil,
Geniality of Climate, and Variety of Products — The Rainfall —
Many Farmers Specialists — The Government's Experimental Sta-
tion— Opportunities for Stock-Raising — Work of the Department
of Agriculture — Its Various Bureaus — Value of Experimental
Work Begtm by General Wood and Extended by President
Menocal — Improving Live Stock — Fruit Growing — Grains and
Grasses — Combating Insect Pests — Bureau of Plant Sanitation.

Chapter XV. Sugar 160

"King Cane" — Cuba's Crop and the World's Production — Natu-
ral Conditions Favorable to Sugar Culture — Extent of Lands
Still Available — The "Savana" and "Cienaga" Lands — Assured
Projects for Draining Great Swamps — Potential Increase of
Sugar Production in Cuba — Methods of Planting, Culture and
Harvesting — The Labor Problem — Improved Machinery — Some-
thing About the Principal Sugar Producing Concerns in Cuba
and the Men Who Have Created Them and Are Directing Them
— The Largest Sugar Company in the World — Cuba's Assured
Rank as the World's Chief Sugar Plantation.

Chapter XVI. Tobacco 183

The Tobacco Industry — First European Acquaintance with the
Plant — The Famous Fields of the Vuelta Abajo — Immense Pro-
ductivity— Methods of Culture and Harvesting — Various Regions
of Tobacco Culture — Insect Pests — Wholesale Use of Cheese-
cloth Canopies — Monetary Importance of the Industry.

Chapter XVII. Henequen 190

The Henequen Industry — The Source of Binding Twine for the
Wheat Fields — Cuban Plantations Now Surpassing Those of
Yucatan — Methods of Growth and Manufacture — Magnitude of
the Industry and Possibilities of Further Extension.

Chapter XVIII. Coffee 197

The Coffee Industry — Early Plantations Which Were Neglected
and Abandoned — An Attractive Industry — Methods of Culture
— Harvesting and Marketing the Crop — Government Encotirage-
ment Being Given for Extension of the Industry.

xav CONTENTS

PAGE

Chapter XIX. The Mango 203

The Mango— The King of Oriental Fruits— Two Distinct Types
in Cuba — All Varieties Prolific — The Trees and the Fruits —
Some of the Favorite Varieties — ^Marketing and Use.

Chapter XX. Citrus Fruits 211

Citrus Fruits — American Introduction of the Commercial Indus-
try— Varieties of Oranges — Comparison with Florida and Cali-
fornia Fruit — Grape Fruit in the Isle of Pines — Limes and Wild
Oranges.

Chapter XXI. Bananas, Pineapples and Other Fruits 219

Antiquity and Universality of the Banana — Its Many Uses —
Commercial Cultivation in Cuba — Methods of Culture — Va-
rieties— Pineapple Culture in Cuba — One of the Staple Crops —
Difficulty of Marketing — The Canning Industry — The Fruit of
the Anon — The Zapote or Sapodilla — The Tamarind — The
Mamey — The Guava — The Mamoncillo — Figs of All Varieties —
The Aguacate.

Chapter XXII. Grapes, Cacao, and Vanilla . . .232

Grape Culture Discouraged by Spain — Recent Development of
the Industry — Much Wine Drinking but Little Drunkenness —
Food and Drink in the Cacao — The Chocolate Industry — Culture
and Manufacture of Cacao — The Vanilla Bean — Methods of
Gathering and Preparing the Crop.

Chapter XXIII. Vegetable Growing 240

Vegetable Growing in Cuba — Regions Most Suitable for the
Industry — Seed Brought from the United States — Winter Crops
of Potatoes — Green Peppers a Profitable Crop — Cultivation of
Tomatoes and Egg Plants — Okra — Lima Beans and String
Beans — Squashes and Pumpkins — Desirability of the Canning
Industry — Utility of Irrigation — Prospects of Profit in Truck
Farming.

Chapter XXIV. Standard Grains and Forage . . . 248

Indian Com Indigenous — Improvements in Culture Desirable —
Millet or Kaffir Corn — Neglect of Wheat Growing — Cultvire of
Upland Rice — Possibilities of Swamp Rice Culture — Profusion
of Meadow and Pasture Grasses — Experiments with Alfalfa —
Cultivation of Cow Peas and Beans — Peanut Plantations.

Chapter XXV. Animals 257

Paucity of Native Favma — Deer, Caprimys and Ant Eaters —
The Sand Hill Crane — Guinea Fowls, Turkeys and Quails —

CONTENTS XV

PAGE

Buzzards, Sparrow Hawks, Mocking Birds and Wild Pigeons
— Varieties of Parrots — The Oriole — The Tody — The Lizard
Cuckoo — The Trogon — Water Birds.

Chapter XXVI. Stock Raising 263

Introduction of Horses and Cattle by the Spaniards — Improve-
ment in the Quality of Stock — A Favorable Land for Cattle
Ranges — Importation of Blooded Stock from the United States
and Europe — Introduction of the Zebu — Great Profits in Hog
Raising — Forage, Nuts and Root Crops for Stock Food — Sheep
and Goat Raising for Wool, Meat and Hides — Value of the An-
gora Goat.

Chapter XXVII. Poultry: Bees: Sponges .... 278

Recent Scientific Development of the Poultry Industry — Presi-
dent Menocal's Importations of Choice Stock — Opportunities for
Agriculture — Wild and Domesticated Bees — Varieties of Honey
Yielding Flowers — Large Exportations of Wax and Honey —
Valuable Sponge Fisheries on the Cuban Coast.

Chapter XXVIII. Places of Historical Interest . . 284

Historic Interest of Havana Harbor — The Romance and Trag-
edy of El Morro — "The Twelve Apostles" — The Vast Fortress
of La Cabaiia — The "Road Without Hope" — A Scene of
Slaughter — Cells of the Fortress Prison — The Castillo de Punta
— The Ancient City Walls — The Romance of La Fuerza — .An-
cient Churches and Convents of Havana — The Cathedral and
the Tomb of Columbus — The San Francisco Convent — San
Agxistin — La Merced — Santa Catalina — Santo .\ngel — Santa Clara
— The Convent of Belen — The Old Echarte Mansion — La
Chorrera — Fort Cojimar — Some Ancient Watch Towers and
Fortresses — The Botanical Gardens.

Chapter XXIX. Havana 303

The Charms of Havina — Early History of the City — Made the
Capital of Cuba — The Quarries from Which It Was Built —
Something About Its Principal Streets and Buildings — Various
Sections of the City — On the Road to the Almsindares — Prin-
cipe Hill — The Universit>- of Havana — The Famous Prado —
The National Theatre — The Central Park and Parque de Colon
— Colon Cemetery — Music in Havana — Favorite Drives and
Resorts — The Bathing Beach — Fishing — Jai .Mai — Baseball —
Horse Racing — Golf — Buildings of the Various Government De-
partments— Memories of the Old Presidential Palace — Some
Fine New Buildings — The New Presidential Palace — The New
Capitol — The National Hospital.

xvi CONTENTS

PAOE

Chapter XXX. A Paradise oj Palm Drives . . .326

A Paradise of Palm Drives — Splendor of the Flamboyans —
The Road to Guinea — A Fine Drive to Matanzas — Roads from
Havana to Guanajay, Artemisa and the Ruby Hills — Old Mili-
tary Roads Improved and Extended — Fine Drives in Pinar del
Rio — The Valley of Vinales — Some Wonderful Landscapes and
Seascapes — Roads Radiating from Matanzas — The Roads of
Santa Clara and Caunaguey — Road Making Among the Moun-
tains of Oriente.

Chapter XXXI. Bays and Harbors 340

The Bays and Harbors of the Cuban Coasts — Bahia Honda —
Cabanas — Mariel — Havana — Matanzas — The Land-Locked Bay
of Cardenas — Santa Clara Bay — Sagua — Caibarien — The Bay of
Nuevitas — Manati — Puerto Padre — Gibara — Banes — Nipe — Le-
visa — Baracoa — Guantanamo — Santiago — Manzanillo — Cien-
fuegos — Batabano — Santa Cruz — Various Other Ports, Great and
Small.

Chapter XXXII. Railroad Systems in Cuba . . . 353

Origin of the Railroad Systems of Cuba — The United Railways
of Havana — The Matanzas Railway — Electric Lines Aroimd
Havana — The Great Work of Sir William Van Home — The
Cuba Company's Railroad System — The Cuba Central Road —
The North Shore Line — Other Lines and Branches Existing or
Projected.

Chapter XXXIII. Money and Banking 361

Money and Banking in Cuba — The First Currency of the
Island — The First Monetary Crisis at Havana — Development of
Modern Coinage and Currency — Single Standard and Double
Standard — Colonial Paper Money — Stabilization of Currency Un-
der American Rule — Statistics of Shipments of Money — Coinage
of Cuban Money Under the New System — Financing the For-
eign Commerce of the Island.

Celapter XXXIV. Public Instruction 367

The Educational System of Cuba — Influences of Clericalism —
Work of General Wood and Mr. Frye — Cooperation of Harvard
University — Dr. Lincoln de Zayas — The Teaching of English —
Progress Under President Menocal — Scope of the System — Some
Special Schools — Normal Schools — The Institute of Havana —
The National University — Cooperation with the United States —
The Free Public Library.

Chapter XXXV. Ocean Transportation . . . .376

Importance of Ocean Transportation to the Insular Republic —
Development of the United Fruit Company — The Ward Line and

CONTENTS xvii

PAOB

Its Fleet — A Network of Communications with All Parts of the
World — Service of the Munson Line — The Peninsular and Oc-
cidental Company — The Railroad Ferry Service from Key West
to Cuba — The Pinillos Izquierdo Line from Spain — The Mor-
gan or Southern Pacific Line — The Great Fleet of the Com-
pagnie General Transatlantique — A New Line from Japan —
Customs Regulations — The Consular Service of Cuba.

Chapter XXXVI. American Colonies in Cuba . . 390

American Colonies in Cuba — Foxmded After the War of Inde-
pendence— Pernicious Activities of Unscrupulous American
Speculators — Heroic Efforts of Illfoimded Coloniesr— The Story
of La Gloria and Its Neighbors — Colonization of the Isle of
Pines — The Colony of Herradura — Various Colonies in Oriente
— Inducements to Further Colonization.

ILLUSTRATIONS

FULL PAGE PLATES

Francisco de Frias Frontispiece

TACIKQ
PAOK

The Vinales Valley 36

San Juan River, Matanzas 54

On the Cauto River 92

National Theatre, Central Park, Havana 14-4

The GOTnez Building 190

Pablo Desvemine 284

In New Havana 296

Colon Park 306

An Avenue of Palms 326

Grand Central Railway Station, Havana 354

Leopold© Cancio 362

The Chamber of Commerce, Havana 376

TEXT e:mbellishments

City Hall and Plaza, Cardenas Page 56

A Mountain Road, Oriente *' 84

Cuban Rural Home " 145

Fruit Vender, Havana " 209

ziz

THE HISTORY OF CUBA

CHAPTER I
THE PEOPLE OF CUBA

In the last analysis, of course, the people of a country
have much to do in making it what it is, or what it may be.
From them must come the life, energy, character and de-
velopment. They will regulate its social standing and
fulfill the promise of its future. Society in Cuba, as in
nearly all long settled countries, is many sided, and while
resembling, more or less, that of all civilized communities,
certain racial traits stand out prominently in the Island
Republic.

If asked to name the most prominent or salient charac-
teristics dominating the Cuban race, we should probably
be justified in saying: unfailing hospitality, exceptional
courtesy, and unmeasurable love of children.

Hospitality in Cuba is not a pose, but on the contrary
is perfectly natural, having descended from a long line of
ancestors, as have the beauty of eyes and teeth and color
of hair. Hospitality among those of higher education,
like courtesy, is tempered with good form that breeding
has rendered an essential characteristic of the individual.
Journeying through the rural or remote sections, it is so
manifestly genuine that unless held back or retarded
through diffidence or suspicion, no one can avoid being
deeply impressed with the extent to which hospitality has
pervaded every corner of the courtry.

John B, Henderson, the naturalist, in his "Cruise of the
Barrera," refers to an occasion when, after serving coffee
in the house of a native family living far from contact
with the outside world, a dollar had been surreptitiously

2 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

given to a child ; and when the guests, whom he had never
seen before, were quite a mile away, the father came run-
ning breathlessly down the mountain path to return the
money, which he said he could not possibly accept under
any circumstances.

True courtesy, also, has kept hospitality close company
in all grades of society. Among the higher ranks of
scholars, statesmen and Government officials, the visitor
who by chance has occasion to call on the Chief of any
Department, if said individual belongs to the old type of
genuine nobility, from the moment he crosses the thres-
hold will note certain polite forms that, while never ob-
trusive, are always in evidence.

No word, gesture or deed will come from the host that
can possibly jar the sensibilities of the visitor, no matter
what his errand may be. During his stay, courtesy will
seem to pervade the atmosphere, and the caller cannot
help feeling absolutely at home. Upon leaving, he will
be made to feel that he has been more than welcome, and
even if the topic discussed or the nature of the errand
has been delicate, he will realize that he has been given
all the consideration that one gentleman could expect of
another.

The educated Cuban is by birth, by nature and by
training, a polished gentleman and a diplomat; a man
who will be at ease in any position, no matter how diffi-
cult, and whose superior, socially or intellectually, is sel-
dom found in any court, cormnittee or congregation of
men. This all prevailing trait of courtesy is also sur-
prisingly manifest among those who have had no advan-
tages of education, and who have been denied the wonder-
fully civilizing influence of travel and contact with the
outside world. Nor is this trait of courtesy and self pos-
session confined by any means to the man.

Love of children, and willingness to make any sacrifice
for their happiness, are perhaps exaggerated develop-
ments of the motherly instinct. A man will be polite to
you in Cuba even if he intends to sign your death warrant

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 3

the next moment. A Cuban mother wall yield to any
caprice of her children, even although she may realize
that in so doing she endangers their future. As a result,
Cuban children, although lovable and affectionate, are
not always well behaved or gentle mannered. Still this
depends largely, as it would in any country, on the tem-
perament and education of the mother, who in Cuba has
all to do towards forming the character of the child, espe-
cially the daughter, in whose "bringing up" the father is
supposed to take no immediate interest or part.

The love which parents, rich or poor, educated or ig-
norant, bestow on their children, no matter how many
little ones may compose the family, or how small the purse
which feeds them, is proverbial. No child, even of a
far removed relative, is ever permitted to enter an institu-
tion of charity if it can be avoided, but will find instead
an immediate and hearty welcome in the family of a msn
who may not know at times where to look for money for
the next day's meal.

The original stock from which sprang the natives of
Cuba, and from which many of their traits undoubtedly
came, reverts back to the followers of Columbus, and to
the old time conquerors of Mexico and the New World.
These gentlemanly adventurers were mostly from the
southern provinces of the Iberian Peninsula, whose blood
was more or less mixed with that of the Moor, and whose
chief physical characteristics were regularity of features,
beauty of eyes, teeth and hair, and whose mental attributes
were dominated by pride, ambition, love of pomp and
ceremony, with great powers of endurance, a strong aver-
sion to ordinary forms of labor, exceptional courtesy, and
an intelligence frequently marred with almost unbeliev-
able cruelty.

These original pioneers or soldiers of fortune in Cuba
found the climate exceedingly to their liking and, after
love of conquest and adventure had been tempered by
increasing years, and the possible accumulation of modest
means, they settled down to quiet and fairly industrious

4 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

lives in the Pearl of the Antilles. From them sprang the
true Cuban race, in which still remain many of the physi-
cal, moral, and intellectual traits of their ancestors.

Some of these early settlers made wives of comely In-
dian women, whose beauty had captured their fancy, and
while the influence of the kindly, pleasure-loving "Cu-
benos" has not made any deep or striking impression on
the race, it may account for the quite common fondness of
display and love of gaiety found in the Cuban of today.

Next to the pioneers of Andalusia and southern Spain,
it is probable that the introduction of French blood has
influenced the Cuban type and life more than any other
race foreign to the Island. Back in the seventeenth cen-
tury French traders and privateers made frequent visits
to Cuba, and some of them found Cuban wives, whose
descendants afterward became citizens of the country.
Then again, in the very first years of the nineteenth cen-
tury, a large influx of French settlers, forced by revolution
from Santo Domingo, fled as refugees to Cuba and made
for themselves homes in Santiago and Santa Clara,
whence with the increase of Havana's distinction as the
capital, many of them transferred their abiding place to
that province and to Pinar del Rio, bringing with them
their experience as coffee growers; this in the early part
of the nineteenth century, becoming one of the most im-
portant industries of the Island.

In the province of Havana, social life and the Cuban
race itself, to a certain extent, were influenced by the
various officials and army officers sent there from the
mother country, many of whom found wives and made
homes in Havana, bringing with them the predominating
traits and customs of Madrid and other cities of Central
Spain, which had given them birth.

In later years, when Cuba began to obtain some promi-
nence in the industrial and commercial world, immigrants
from the mother country came to Havana in steadily in-
creasing numbers. These were mostly from Galicia and
other northern coast provinces of Spain. They were a

THE HISTORY OF CUBA S

plodding, frugal and industrious people, who, leaving a
country that offered little compensation for the hardest
forms of labor, found easier work and higher pay in
Spain's favorite colony.

The Gallego in Cuba, however, prefers the life of the
city, in which he plays quite an important part, since be-
ginning at the very bottom of the ladder, through patient
thrift and industry, maintained throughout a compara-
tively few years, he often succeeds in becoming the pro-
prietor of a bodega, the ubiquitous barber shop, the cor-
ner cafe, or the sumptuous hotel on the Prado.

In the commercial life of the Island, he has a serious
rival in the Catalan, who, while possessed of many of the
traits of the hard working son of Galicia, is perhaps his
superior in establishing successful enterprises of larger
scope. The Catalan seldom if ever fails in business, and
in energy, persistence and keen foresight, is quite the
equal of those most famous of all traders and men of
commerce, the sons of Israel.

Since the capture of Havana in 1763, when some of the
members of the English army, captivated by the climate,
concluded to remain there permanently, a small influx
of English immigrants may be traced along through the
past century, but never in sufficient numbers to play a
very important part in the social or economical life of the
country. Nevertheless, those who came and remained as
permanent residents of Cuba, brought with them the ele-
ments of courage, thrift and integrity which characterize
the English colonist in all parts of the world. Strange
to relate, the general rule in regard to the unconformity
of the English, when living in foreign climes, does not
seem to apply in Cuba.

The immigrant from Great Britain, who settled in
Cuba, while leaving the imprint of his character on his
descendants, has nevertheless, sooner or later, become in
many respects a typical native of the country, adopting
even the language, ajnd using it as his own, while his
children, bright blue eyed and keenly intelligent, are often

6 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

permitted to remain ignorant of their paternal tongue.
Hence it is that we frequently meet with Robert Smith,
Henry Brown, Herbert Clews, Frank Godoy, Tom Arm-
strong and Billy Patterson, sons or grandsons of former
British subjects, who would look at you in doubt and
fail to comprehend if saluted with such a common phrase
as "a fine day" in English. Cuba has appreciated the
sterling value of the small English immigration that has
come to her shores, and only regrets that there is not more
of it.

Quite a large sprinkling from the Emerald Isle have
become permanent residents of Cuba, and aside, perhaps,
from a little trace of the original brogue, it would be hard
to distinguish them from the wide awake Gallegos. The
men of no race will so quickly adjust themselves to cir-
cumstances, and become, as it were, members of the fam-
ily, no matter whether they settle in France, Italy, Spain,
Cuba or the United States, as will the immigrants from
Ireland. The Irishman brings with him, and always re-
tains, his light-hearted, go-as-you-please and take-it-as-
it-comes characteristics, no matter where he settles.
More than all, the Irishman seldom makes trouble in any
country but his own, and seems not only content, but
quite willing, to accept the customs of his adopted coun-
try, even to the point of "running it" if opportunity
offers.

Why more Italians have not settled in Cuba, a coun-
try that in many respects resembles some sections of south-
ern Italy, is not easy to determine, although it is probably
due to a lack of propaganda on the part of the Republic
itself. Occasional commercial houses are found, owned
by Italians who have been residents there for many years,
and a few of the laboring class, seeking higher wages
within the last few years, have made their homes in Ha-
vana. Marvellous opportunities in the various fields of
agriculture wait the keen witted thrifty Italian in Cuba.
The certainty of a competence, if not a fortune, in small
stock raising and grape growing, evidently has not been

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 7

brought to his attention, otherwise more would have come
and settled pennanently in a country with whose people,
in their fondness for music, their religious and social
customs, they have much in common.

Of the Germans, of whom quite a number came to
Cuba within the last thirty years, a different tale is told.
The Teuton who roams abroad seems to come always
with a definite purpose. He is diplomatic, courteous,
observing, hard working, but essentially selfish in his
motives, and makes no move the object of which is not
to impress on the land he visits, or in which he may be-
come a permanent resident, every custom, tradition and
practice of the Fatherland that can possibly be implanted
in the country that has given him shelter or social recogni-
tion. His club, his habits, his beer, his songs, his lan-
guage and his precepts of "Deutscher Ueber Alles," are
spread to the utmost of his ability. But the German has
been efficient and has catered in all his commercial deal-
ings to the customs, caprices and even to the vices or weak-
nesses of the people with whom he trades and comes in
contact. Hence it is that, up to the outbreak of the war
of 1914, Germany certainly had the advantage over every
competitor for trade from the Rio Grande to Patagonia.

Strange as it may seem, although Cuba is no farther
from American territory in Florida than is Philadelphia
from the City of New York, there was very little immi-
gration from the United States and almost no citizens of
that country, in spite of the attractions of the Pearl of the
Antilles, had apparently ever thought of making a home
in Cuba, until the Spanish-American War brought an
army of occupation to the City of Havana in the fall of
1898.

Following this army, as a result perhaps of favorable
reports that came from the lips of returning soldiers,
quite an influx of Americans, actuated by curiosity or mo-
tives of trade, came to Cuba and remained here perma-
nently, many marrying into Cuban families, purchasing
farms, or establishing branch houses and independent in-

8 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

dustries in the Island Republic. Most of these have suc-
ceeded socially and financially.

The larger part of the American settlers of 1900 came
from Florida, and the Gulf States, although scattered
throughout the various colonies of the Island are found
people from almost every State of the Union. While the
greater part of them, owing to the attractiveness and to
better transportation facilities have remained in or near
Havana, quite a number have settled in the Province of
Camaguey, most of whom have prospered there as stock
raisers and followers of agricultural industries.

The American as a rule, although of little experience
as a colonizer, has nevertheless readily adapted himself
to circumstances, and had made fast friends in his new
surroundings. Many broad and excellent changes have
been brought about by this influx of citizens from the
sister Republic of the North. Most important of all was
the introduction of an excellent system of modern sanita-
tion which the Cuban has appreciated and followed with
zeal. The absolute elimination of yellow fever and every
other disease common to the tropics, can be placed to the
credit of the country that became sponsor for Cuban Inde-
pendence.

To this immigration may be attributed, also, many
changes in Cuban social life, especially the gradually
broadening sphere of activity among Cuban women, and
the removal of some of the social barriers which from
the immemorial had placed her in the position of a treas-
ured toy, rather than that of an independent partner, and
a responsible unit in the game of life.

The impress of American influence on education, too,
has been very great, since almost the first move of the
military forces that took charge of the Island's affairs
with the exit of Spanish authority was to establish in
Cuba a public school system, and modern ideas of edu-
cation.

To the American farmer and fruit grower of Florida
was due also the introduction of the citrus fruit industry,

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 9

and the growing of vegetables on a large scale for the
northern market, and while these enterprises are still, to a
certain extent, in their infancy, many millions of dollars
have been added thus to the wealth of the Island. In
spite of what has been done, truth compels the statement,
how^ever, that in the United States really little is known
of Cuba and her opportunities, although from the be-
ginning of that country as a nation, aside from Mexico,
geographically Cuba has been her closest neighbor.

There are great possibilities for American enterprise
in the Island Republic, in agriculture, in stock raising,
mining and other industries that American genius in the
near future will undoubtedly discover and develop.

CHAPTER II
THE TOPOGRAPHY OF CUBA

Topographically the surface of Cuba may be divided
into five rather distinct zones, three of which are essen-
tially mountainous. The first includes the entire eastern
third of the province of Oriente, together with the greater
part of its coast line, where the highest mountains of the
Island are found. The second includes the greater part
of the province of Camaguey, made up of gently rolling
plains broken by occasional hills or low mountains, that
along the northern coast, and again in the southeast cen-
ter of the Province, rise to a height of approximately 1500
feet above the general level.

The next is a mountainous district including the greater
part of eastern Santa Clara. The fourth comprises the
western portion of this province together with all of Ma-
tanzas and Havana. The surface of this middle section
is largely made up of rolling plains, broken here and
there by hills that rise a few hundred feet above the sea
level.

The fifth includes the province of Pinar del Rio, the
northern half of which is traversed from one end to the
other by several more or less parallel ranges of sierras,
with mean altitudes ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 feet,
leaving the southern half of the Province a flat plain,
into which, along its northern edge, project spurs and
foothills of the main range.

The highest mountains of Cuba are located in the prov-
ince of Oriente, where their general elevation is somewhat
higher than that of the Allegheny or eastern ranges of
the United States. The mountainous area of this prov-
ince is greater than that of the combined mountain areas

10

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 11

of all other parts of the Island. The mountains occur in
groups, composed of different kinds of rock, and have
diverse structures, more or less connected with one an-
other.

The principal range is the Sierra Maestra, extending
from Cabo Cruz to the Bay of Guantanamo, forty miles
east of Santiago. This chain is continuous and of fairly
uniform altitude, with the exception of a break in the
vicinity of Santiago where the wide basin of Santiago Bay
cuts across the main trend of the range. The highest
peak of the Island is kno\\'n as Turquino, located near the
middle of the Sierra Maestra, and reaching an altitude
of 8,642 feet.

The hills back of Santiago Bay, separating it from the
Valley of the Cauto, are similar in structure to the north-
em foothills of the main sierra. In the western part of
the range, the mountains rise abruptly from the depths
of the Caribbean Sea, but near the City of Santiago, and
to the eastward, they are separated from the ocean by a
narrow coastal plain, very much dissected. The streams
which traverse it occupy valleys several hundred feet in
depth, while the remnants of the plateau appear in the
tops of the hills.

East of Guantanamo Bay there are mountains which
are structurally distinct from the Sierra Maestra, and
these continue to Cape Maisi, the eastern terminus of
Cuba. To the west they rise abruptly from the ocean bed,
but further east, they are bordered by terraced foothills.
Towards the north they continue straight across the Is-
land as features of bold relief, connecting with the rugged
Cuchillas of Baracoa, and with "El Yunque" lying to the
southwest.

Extending west from this eastern mass are high pla-
teaus and mesas that form the northern side of the great
amphitheatre which drains into Guantanamo Bay.
Much of this section, when raised from the sea, was prob-
ably a great elevated plain, cut up and eroded through
the ages since the seismic uplift that caused its birth.

12 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

The most prominent feature of the northern mountains
of Oriente Province, west of "El Yunque," is the range
comprising the Sierras Cristal and Nipe. These extend
east and west, but are separated into several distinct
masses by the Rio Sagua and the Rio Mayari, which
break through and empty into harbors on the north coast.
The high country south of these ranges has the character
of a deeply dissected plateau, the upper stratum of which
is limestone.

The character of the surface would indicate that nearly
all the mountains of the eastern part of Oriente have been
carved through erosion of centuries from a high plateau,
the summits of which are found in "El Yunque" near
Baracoa, and other flat topped mountains within the
drainage basins of the Mayari and the Sagua rivers.
The flat summits of the Sierra Nipe are probably rem-
nants of the same great uplift.

Below this level are other benches or broad plateaus,
the two most prominent occurring respectively at 1500
and 2000 feet above sea level. The highest summits
rise to an altitude of 2800 or 3000 feet. The 2000 foot
plateau of the Sierra Nipe alone includes an area esti-
mated at not less than 40 square miles. It would seem
that these elevated plateaus with their rich soils might be
utilized for the production of wheat, and some of the
northern fruits that require a cooler temperature than that
found in other parts of Cuba.

In the province of Oriente, the various mountain
groups form two marginal ranges, which merge in the
east, and diverge toward the west. The southern range is
far more continuous, while the northern is composed of
irregular groups separated by numerous river valleys.
Between these divergent ranges lies the broad undulating
plain of the famous Cauto Valley, which increases in
width as it extends westward. The northern half of this
valley merges into the plains of Camaguey, whose sur-
face has been disturbed by volcanic uplifts only by a
small group known as the Najassa Hills, in the southeast

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 13

center of the province, and by the Sierra Cubitas Range,
which parallels the coast from the basin of Nuevitas Bay
until it terminates in the isolated hill knowTi as Loma
Cunagua.

The central mountainous region of the Island is lo-
cated in the province of Santa Clara, where a belt of
mountains and hills following approximately northeast
and southwest lines, passes through the cities of Sancti
Spiritus and Santa Clara. Four groups are found here,
one of which lies southwest of Sancti Spiritus, and east of
the Rio Agabama. A second group is included between
the valleys of the Agabama and the Rio Arimao.

The highest peak of Santa Clara is known as Potre-
rillo, located seven miles north of Trinidad, with an alti-
tude of 2,900 feet. A third group lies southeast of the
city of Santa Clara, and includes the Sierra del Escam-
bray and the Alta de Agabama. The founded hills of
this region have an altitude of about 1 ,000 feet although a
few of the summits are somewhat higher.

The fourth group consists of a line of hills, beginning
25 miles east of Sagua la Grande, and extending into the
province of Camaguey. The trend of this range is trans-
verse to the central mountain zone as a whole, but it con-
forms in direction with the general geological structure of
the region.

East of the city of Santa Clara the hills of this last
group merge with those of the central portion of the
province. The summits in the northern line reach an
altitude of only a thousand feet. The principal mem-
bers are known as the Sierra Morena, west of Sagua la
Grande, Lomas de Santa Fe, near Camaguani, the Sierra
de Bamburanao, near Yaguajay, and the Lomas of the
Savanas, south of the last mentioned town.

In the province of Pinar del Rio, we find another sys-
tem, or chain of mountains, dominated by the Sierra de
los Organos or Organ mountains. These begin a little
west of Guardiana Bay, with a chain of "magotes,"
known as the "Pena Blanca," composed of tertiary lime-

14 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

stone. These are the result of a seismic upheaval run-
ning from north to south, almost at right angles with the
main axis of the chains that form the mountainous verte-
brae of the Island.

Between the city of Pinar del Rio and the north coast
at La Esperanza, the Organos are broken up into four
or five parallel ridges, two of which are composed of lime-
stone, while the others are of slate, sandstones and schists.
The term "magote," in Cuba, is applied to one of the most
interesting and strikingly beautiful mountain formations
in the world. They are evidently remnants of high
ranges running usually from east to west, and have re-
sulted from the upheaval of tertiary strata that dates back
probably to the Jurassic period.

The soft white material of this limestone, through
countless eons of time, has been hammered by tropical
rains that gradually washed away the surface and carved
their once ragged peaks into peculiar, round, dome-
shaped elevations that often rise perpendicularly to a
height of 1 ,000 feet or more above the level grass plains
that form their base. Meanwhile the continual seepage
of water formed great caverns within that sooner or later
caved in and fell, hastening thus the gradual leveling to
which all mountains are doomed as long as the world is
supplied with air and water. The softening and contin-
ual crumbling away of the rock have formed a rich soil
on which grow-s a wonderful wealth of tropical vegeta-
tion, unlike anything known to other sections of Cuba, or
perhaps in the world.

The valley of the Vinales, lying between the City of
Pinar del Rio and the north coast, might well be called the
garden of the "magotes," since not only is it surrounded
by their precipitous walls, but several of them, detached
from the main chain, rise abruptly from the floor of the
valley, converting it into one of the most strangely beau-
tiful spots in the world.

John D. Henderson, the naturalist, in speaking of this
j^egion, says: "The valley of the Vinales must not be

THE HISTORY OF CUBA IS

compared with the Yosemite or Grand Canon, or some
famed Alpine passage, for it cannot display the astound-
ing contrasts of these, or of many well-known valleys
among the higher mountains of the world. We were all
of us traveled men who viewed this panorama, but all
agreed that never before had we gazed on so charming a
sight. There are recesses among the Rocky Mountains
of Canada in which one gazes with awe and bated breath,
where the very silence oppresses, and the beholder in-
stinctively reaches out for support to guard against slip-
ping into the awful chasm below. But the Valley of
Vinales, on the contrary, seems to soothe and lull the
senses. Like great birds suspended in the sky, we long
to soar above it, and then alighting within some palm
grove, far below, to rejoice in its atmosphere of perfect
peace."

A mountain maze of high, round-topped lomas domi-
nates almost the entire northern half of Pinar del Rio.
It is the picturesque remnant of an elevated plain that at
some time in the geological life of the Island was raised
above the surface 1500, perhaps 2000, feet. This,
through the erosion of thousands of centuries, has been
carved into great land surges, without any particular
alignment or system.

Straight up through the center of this mountainous
area are projected a series of more or less parallel lime-
stone ridges. These, as a rule, have an east and west
axis, and attain a greater elevation than the lomas. They
are known as the Sierras de los Organos, although hav-
ing many local names at different points. Water and
atmospheric agencies have carved them into most fantas-
tic shapes, so that they do, in places, present an organ pipe
appearance. They are almost always steep, often with
vertical walls or "paradones" that rise 1000 feet from
the floor or base on which they rest.

The northernmost range, running parallel to the Gulf
Coast, is known as the "Costanero." The highest peak
of Pinar del Rio is called Guajaibon, which rises to an

16 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

altitude of 3000 feet, with its base but very little above the
level of the sea. It is probably of Jurassic limestone
and forms the eastern outpost of the Costaneros.

The southern range of the Organos begins with an in-
teresting peak known as the Pan de Azucar, located only
a few miles east of the Pena Blanca. From this western
sentinel with many breaks extends the great southern
chain of the Organos with its various groups of ''mago-
tes," reaching eastward throughout the entire province.
At its extreme eastern terminus we find a lower and de-
tached ridge known as the Pan de Guana jay, which
passes for a few miles beyond the boundary line, and into
the province of Havana.

Surrounding the Organos from La Esperanza west,
and bordering it also on the south for a short distance
east of the city of Pinar del Rio, are ranges of round
topped lomas, composed largely of sandstone, slate and
shale. The surface of these is covered with the small
pines, scrubby palms and undergrowth found only on
poor soil.

From the Mulato River east, along the north coast, the
character of the lomas changes abruptly. Here we have
deep rich soil covered with splendid forests of hard woods,
that reach up into the Organos some ten miles back from
the coast. Along the southern edge of the Organos,
from Herredura east, lies a charming narrow belt of roll-
ing country covered with a rich sandy loam that extends
almost to the city of Artemisa.

Extensions, or occasional outcroppings, of the Pinar
del Rio mountain system, appear in the province of Ha-
vana, and continue on into Matanzas, where another
short coastal range appears, just west of the valley of
the Yumuri. This, as before stated, has its continuation
in detached ridges that extend along the entire north
coast, with but few interruptions, until merged into the
mountain maze of eastern Oriente.

Outside of the mountainous districts thus described,
the general surface of Cuba is a gently undulating plain,

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 17

with altitudes varying from only a few feet above the sea
level to 500 or 600 feet, near El Cristo in Oriente. In
Pinar del Rio it forms a piedmont plain that entirely sur-
rounds the mountain range. On the south this plain
has a maximum width of about 25 miles and ascends
gradually from the shores of the Caribbean at the rate
of seven or eight feet to the mile until it reaches the edge
of the foothills along the line of the automobile drive,
connecting Havana with the capital of Pinar del Rio.

North of the mountain range the lowland belt is very
much narrower and in some places reaches a height of
200 feet as a rule deeply dissected, so that in places only
the level of the hill tops mark the position of the original
plain.

The two piedmont plains of Pinar del Rio unite at
the eastern extremity of the Organos Mountains and ex-
tend over the greater part of the provinces of Havana
and Matanzas and the western half of Santa Clara. The
divide as a rule is near the center of this plain, although
the land has a gradual slope from near its northern mar-
gin towards the south.

In the neighborhood of Havana, the elevation varies
between 300 and 400 feet, continuing eastward to Car-
denas. The streams flowing north have lowered their
channels as the land rose, and the surface drained by
them has become deeply dissected, while the streams
flowing toward the south have been but little affected
by the elevation and remain generally in very narrow
channels.

East of Cardenas the general elevation of the plain is
low, sloping gradually both north and south from the
axis of the Island. Considerable areas of this plain are
found among the various mountain groups in the eastern
half of Santa Clara province, beyond which it extends
over the greater part of Camaguey and into Oriente.
Here it reaches the northern coast between isolated moun-
tain groups, extending as far east as Nipe Bay, and to-
ward the south merges into the great Cauto Valley.

18 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

From Cabo Cruz the plain extends along the northern
base of the Sierra Maestra to the head of the Cauto valley.
Its elevation near Manzanillo is about 200 feet, whence
it increases to 640 feet at El Cristo. In the central sec-
tion of Oriente, the Cauto River and its tributaries have
cut channels into this plain from 50 to 200 feet in depth.
In the lower part of the valley these channels are some-
times several miles across and are occupied by alluvial
flats or river bottoms. They decrease in width towards
the east and in the upper part of the valley become nar-
row gorges.

A large part of this plain of Cuba, especially in the
central provinces, is underlaid by porous limestone,
through which the surface waters have found under-
ground passages. This accounts for the fact that large
areas are occasionally devoid of flow^ing surface streams.
The rain water sinks into the ground as soon as it falls,
and after flowing long distances under ground, emerges in
bold springs, such as those of the Almandares that burst
out of the river bank some eight miles south of the City
of Havana. Engineers of the rope and cordage plant,
just north of the City of Matanzas, while boring for
water, found unexpectedly a swdft, running river, only ten
feet below the surface, that has given them an inex-
haustible supply of excellent water.

Most of the plains of Cuba above indicated have been
formed by the erosion of its surface, and are covered
with residual soil derived from the underlying limestones.
Where they consist of red or black clays they are exceed-
ingly fertile. Certain portions of the plains, especially
those bordering on the southern side of the mountains of
Pinar del Rio, are covered with a layer of sand and
gravel, washed down from the adjoining highlands, and
are inferior in fertility to soils derived from the erosion
of limestone. Similar superficial deposits are met in the
vicinity of Cienfuegos, and in other sections of the Is-
land, where the plain forms a piedmont adjacent to high-
lands composed of silicious rocks.

CHAPTER III
THE CLIMATE OF CUBA

Since on the climate of country depends largely its
healthfulness, nothing perhaps is of greater importance,
especially to the man who wishes to find some place where
he may build his permanent home and raise his family;
to him this feature afbove all demands careful considera-
tion.

The most striking and perhaps the most important fact
in regard to the climate of Cuba is its freedom from
those extremes of temperature which are considered preju-
dicial to health in any country. The difference between
the mean annual temperature of winter and that of sum-
mer is only twelve degrees, or from 76 degrees to 88 de-
grees. Even between the coldest days of winter, when
the mercury once went as low as 58 degrees, and the ex-
treme limit of summer, registered as 92 degrees, we have
a difference of only 34 degrees; and the extremes of
summer are seldom noticed, since the fresh northeast trade
winds coming from the Atlantic sweep across the Island,
carrying away with them the heated atmosphere of the
interior.

The fact that the main axis of the Island, with its
seven hundred mile stretch of territory, extends from
southeast to northwest, almost at right angles to the gen-
eral direction of the wind, plays a very important part
in the equability of Cuba's climate. Then again, the
Island is completely surrounded by oceans, the tempera-
ture of which remains constant, and this plays an im-
portant part in preventing extremes of heat or cold.

Ice, of course, cannot form, and frost is found only on
the tops of the tallest mountain ranges. The few cold

19

20 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

days during winter, when the thermometer may drop to
60 after sundown, are the advance waves of "Northers"
that sweep down from the Dakotas, across Oklahoma and
the great plains of Texas, eventually reaching Cuba, but
only after the sting of the cold has been tempered in its
passage of six hundred miles across the Gulf of Mexico.

A temperature of 60 degrees in Cuba is not agreeable
to the natives, or even to those residents who once lived
in northern climes. This may be due to the fact that life
in the Tropics has a tendency to thin the blood, and to
render it less resistant to low temperature; and also be-
cause Cuban residences are largely of stone, brick or
reinforced concrete, with either tile or marble floors, and
have no provision whatever against cold. And, although
the walls are heavy, the windows, doors and openings
are many times larger than those of residences in the
United States, hence the cold cannot readily be excluded
as in other countries. There is said to be but one fire-
place in the Island of Cuba, and that was built in the
beautiful home of an American, near Guayabal, just to
remind him, he said, of the country whence he came.

Again in the matter of rainfall and its bearing on the
climate of a country, Cuba is very fortunate. The rains
all come in the form of showers during the summer
months, from the middle of May until the end of Octo-
ber, and serve to purify and temper the heat of summer.
On the other hand, the cooler months of winter are quite
dry, and absolutely free from the chilling rains, sleets,
snows, mists and dampness, that endanger the health, if
not the life, of those less fortunate people who dwell in
latitudes close to 40 degrees.

Cloudy, gloomy days are almost unknown in Cuba, and
the sun can be depended upon to shine for at least thirty
days every month, and according to the testimony of
physicians nothing is better than sunshine to eliminate the
germs of contagious diseases. Hence we can truthfully
says that in the matter of climate and health, Cuba asks
no favor of any country on earth.

CHAPTER IV
PROVINCE OF HAVANA

The Province of Havana, with its area of 3,171 square
miles, is the smallest in Cuba, and yet, owing to the city
of Havana, capital of the Republic, it plays a very im-
portant part in the social, political and economic life of
the Island.

Geographically, it is the pivotal province of Cuba,
since the narrowest place across the ^ong arch-like
stretch of the Island is found along the r rder between
Havana and Pinar del Rio, where only twenty-two miles
lie between the Mexican Gulf and the Caribbean Sea.
The province proper measures about thirty miles from
north to south, with an average width of fifty-five.

The topography of Havana includes a varied assort-
ment of hills, ridges, plateaus, valleys and plains, so that
the scenery never becomes monotonous; and with the
numerous automobile drives that radiate from the Capi-
tal, shaded with the luxuriant foliage of royal palms,
bamboo and other forms of tropical vegetation, it offers
to the tourist and traveler an almost endless panorama
of charming change and pleasant surprise. The aver-
age altitude of Havana province is slightly lower than
that of either Matanzas or Pinar del Rio, bordering on
the east and west.

Columbus, on his second voyage of discovery, cruised
along the southern coast of Cuba until he reached a point
a little west of the Indian village of Batabano. Here
he heard of another island not far to the south. Leav-
ing the coast he threaded his way through shoals and
scattered keys, that even up to the present time have
been only imperfectly charted, and finally, on July 12,
1494, landed at some place on the northern shore. He

21

22 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

called this island the Evangelist. It is the largest of a
chain of keys running parallel with this part of the south
coast, irregular in form with an area of approximately
eight hundred square miles, and forms the southern half
of the judicial district of Havana.

Columbus remained here, taking on fresh water and
wood, until July 25, and then began his return voyage
east, sailing over shoals that displayed so many varying
shades of green, purple and white, that his mariners are
said to have become alarmed.

Some twenty years later Diego Velasquez cruised along
the southern coast to a point west of the Guines River,
where he founded a city, which he called San Cristobal
de la Havana. The fifty odd colonists whom he left
behind soon became dissatisfied with the general sur-
roundings of the spot which he had selected for their abid-
ing place and moved over to the north shore of the Island
near the mouth of the Almandares River, which they
found in every way more agreeable as a place of perma-
nent residence. In 1519 a second move was made to the
Bay of Carenas, where they located permanently on the
harbor, destined soon after to become the most important
port of the West Indies.

The inhabitants of that irregular group of palm
thatched huts little dreamed that four centuries later the
Port of Havana would have a foreign commerce whose
tonnage is excelled by only one other in the Western
Hemisphere.

With the exception of the low, grass-covered plains of
the southern shore, the topography of the Province of
Havana is undulating and picturesque. The northern
shore, throughout most of its length, especially from the
City of Havana west to Matanzas, rises more or less
abruptly from the beach until it reaches a rather uneven
plateau, several hundred feet above the level of the sea.

In the northwestern corner, some two miles back from
the shore line, the "Pan" or "Loma of Guayabon,"
which is really a continuation of the Organ Mountains

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 23

of Pinar del Rio, forms a palm covered, picturesque
ridge, six hundred feet in height, extending from east to
west for several miles. Along the southern edge of this
range of hills, runs a beautiful automobile drive, con-
necting the capital with the city of Pinar del Rio, the
wonderful valley of the Vinales, Guane and the extreme
western end of the Island. A drive leading from the
city of Guanajay extends fifty miles northwest to the Bay
of Bahia Honda, chosen originally as a coaling station
for the Navy, but never occupied.

In the east central part of the province lie two small
mountains known as the Tetas de Bejucal, and from
them, extending in an easterly direction into the Province
of Matanzas, are broken ridges, plateaus, and hills that
form one of the connecting links between the Organ
group of mountains in the west, and the still higher Cor-
dilleras of the Province of Oriente in the extreme east.

With the exception of the coastal plain running along
the southern boundary, the remainder of the province is
undulating, more or less hilly, and quite picturesque in
its contour. A little east of the Tetas de Bejucal, from
the top of the divide that forms the water shed of the
province, looking south, one sees below him the Valley
of the Guines, known as the Garden of Havana. Thou-
sands of acres are here spread out before the view, all
irrigated by the Guines River, whose source is in the
never failing springs that gush from the base of a moun-
tain ridge in the east center of the Province.

The rich soil of this section, furnished as it is with
water throughout the year, produces a marvelous yield
of sugar cane, potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, egg plants and
other vegetables, affording an inexhaustible supply dur-
ing the winter to the capital, forty miles north. Engi-
neers are making a study of this river so that its water
may be more economically distributed and the acreage
of irrigated lands greatly increased.

In the southwestern quarter of Havana Province,
known as the Tumbadero District, experiments were first

24 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

made in growing tobacco under cheese cloth. These
were so successful that in a few years Tumbadero, or
Havana wrappers, became famous for their fineness of
texture, and within a short time thousands of acres in
that section were converted into fields, or vegas, whose
returns in tobacco leaf product were excelled in value
only by those of the celebrated Vuelta Abajo district of
Pinar del Rio. The towns of Alquizar and Guira de
Melina were built and sustained by the reputation of the
Tumbadero wrapper, and the tobacco district was soon
extended well up into the center of the province, includ-
ing Salud, Rincon, San Antonio de los Banos, and San-
tiago de las Vegas. In the northwestern corner of the
Island, the rich valley extending south and east of the
"Pan de Guayabon," including the towns of Caimito,
Hoyo Colorado, and Guayabal, has recently rivaled the
Tumbadero district in the excellence of its tobacco, and
excels in citrus fruit.

Over three-fourths of Havana Province have been
blessed with a remarkably fertile soil, and although much
of it has been under cultivation for three centuries or
more, with the judicious use of fertilizers, the returns,
either in fruit or vegetables, are very gratifying to the
small farmer.

Along the delightfully shaded automobile drives that
radiate from the Capital in nearly all directions, the
price of land within thirty miles of the city has risen
so rapidly that it is being given over almost entirely to
suburban homes and country estates, maintained by the
wealthy residents of the capital. In a climate where
frost is unknown, where the foliage remains fresh and
green throughout the winter, it is comparatively easy to
convert an ordinary farm into a veritable garden of
Eden.

One of the most beautiful places on the Island within
the last few years has been created by General Mario
G. Menocal, President of the Republic. It covers sev-
eral hundred acres and is know^n as "El Chico," or the

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 25

"Little One." A commanding residence of Cuban col-
onial architecture, standing a little back from the road,
has been surrounded with beautiful drives, lined with
every variety of fruit tree, flower and ornamental plant
known to Cuba. The green lawn sweeps up to the
stately building occupied by President Menocal as a resi-
dence or country seat in summer. On this place may be
found many varieties of poultry, recently imported from
the United States for experimental purposes, in which the
President is deeply interested. Competent gardeners and
caretakers are maintained, with the result that "El
Chico," where General Menocal and his family spend
much of their time, has become one of the show places
of the Province.

Col. Jose Villalon, Secretary of Public Works, and
Col. Charles Hernandez, Director of Posts and Tele-
graph, have pretty country estates located west of Ha-
vana, not far from El Chico.

The soil of the Province, throughout most of its ex-
tent, has been formed through the erosion of tertiary lime-
stone, colored in many places a reddish brown of oxide of
iron that has impregnated most of the soils of Cuba.
Just south of Havana, serpentine has obtruded through
the limestone along a belt some two or three miles in
extent, and forms the round topped hills in evidence from
the bay.

The greater part of Havana Province, when found by
the Spaniards, was covered wnth forests of hard woods,
that were gradually cut away during the centuries in
which the land has been tilled. The trees, according to
early records, included cedar, mahogany, acana, ma-
jagua and others, still found in the mountainous dis-
tricts and those sections of Cuba not yet brought under
cultivation. These valusfble hard woods formed the
posts, joists, rafters, doors and windows of nearly all the
old-time residences of early days. Many buildings that
have remained standing through centuries, have ceilings
that are supported by heavy carved timbers of mahogany

26 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

and give promise still of long years of service if per-
mitted to remain.

The basic wealth of the province, as in nearly all other
sections of Cuba, is dependent on agriculture, although
since the inauguration of the Republic in 1902, manu-
facturing and various other industries are beginning to
play a prominent part in her economical wealth.

In agricultural products, the Guines Valley previously
referred to undoubtedly produces greater returns than
any other similar lands in Cuba. Hundreds of thou-
sands of crates of tomatoes, egg plants and other veget-
ables, that have been raised through the winter month by
irrigation, are shipped to the United States from Decem-
ber to April. Thousands of barrels of Irish potatoes
from the Guines Valley, also, are sold in Philadelphia,
New York and Boston during the month of March, at
prices averaging four dollars per hundred weight.

In the Valley of Caimito, Guayabal and Hoyo Col-
orado, large crops of vegetables are shipped to the north-
ern markets during the winter months, when good prices
are assured. A certainty of profit, however, can only be
depended on where irrigation from wells is secured.

Large acreages of pineapples are grown in the same
district, although the center of the pineapple industry in
Havana today is located about thirty miles east of the
City, ofi the road to Matanzas. Over a million crates
every year are shipped out of Havana to the northern
markets between the middle of May and the middle of
July.

It is probable that no section of either the West Indies
or the United States offers greater opportunities for the
canning industry than is found in Cuba at the present
time, especially in the Province of Havana, where fa-
cilities for transportation are plentiful. A general can-
ning and preserving plant, intelligently conducted, could
be operated in this province throughout the entire year.
In this way all of the surplus pineapples not shipped
abroad could be utilized.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 27

During the last few years several manufacturing in-
dustries have sprung up on the outskirts of Havana, all
of which seem to be yielding satisfactory returns. Three
large breweries are turning out a very good grade of beer
that is disposed of throughout the Island. The plants
are located in the suburbs of Havana, each surrounded
by grounds rendered attractive by landscape gardeners
and furnishing places for recreation and rest to both
rich and poor on holidays, which are plentiful in Cuba.
A large up-to-date bottling plant, located just west of the
City, manufactures the containers for the output of the
breweries.

Between the city of Havana and the suburb of Ceiba,
a modern rubber tire and tube factory has been estab-
lished, and is said to be working on full time with very
satisfactory profits. Several large soap and perfume
factories, recently established, are supplying the demand
for these products with satisfaction, it is said, both to the
manufacturer and the consumer,

A number of brick yards and tile factories are located
not far from the City, the combined output of which is
large. The erection of wooden buildings within the city
limits of Havana is not tolerated. In fact they are not
at all popular in Cuba since the climate is not conducive
to the preservation of wood, aside from cedar and ma-
hogany or other hard woods, which are too expensive for
construction work. Limestone, easily worked, and of a
fine quality for this climate, is found in abundance, hence
it is that the vast amount of building going on at the
present time in Cuba makes heavy demands on both this
material and brick, for all constructive purposes.

Nature has again favored this Island in her large
deposits of excellent cement-clay, limestone and sand,
which are essential to the manufacture of cement. The
Almandares factory located on the west bank of that
river has long been in successful operation. Within the
last year another large modem cement factory has been
established on the eastern shores of the harbor of Mariel,

28 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

twenty-five miles west of Havana, and today is turning
out high-grade cement at the rate of six hundred barrels
per day.

Local factories have had a monopoly of the match-
making industry in Cuba for many years. Few, if any
matches are imported from abroad, and may never be,
owing to the fact that the people of Cuba prefer the wax
taper match. Although short and rather inconvenient
to those who are not accustomed to this miniature candle,
the flame burns longer and persists more successfully in
a breeze, hence it is probable that the Cuban match will
hold its own against all competitors. Quite a revenue
is derived from the penny stamp tax placed on each box
of matches.

Large quantities of pine lumber are imported into
Cuba from the Gulf cities, especially from South Pasca-
goula, Miss., and Mobile. This material is used
throughout the island for interior work, sash, doors,
blinds, etc. Unless covered with paint, hard pine is not
very lasting in this climate, for which reasons, perhaps,
show cases, fancy work and ornamental doors are usually
built of the native cedar and majagua, which are prac-
tically impervious to either decay or attack from boring
insects.

The most important industry of the Province, from
the monetary viewpoint, at least, is the manufacture of
cigars and cigarettes, which are produced in greater
quantity in Havana and throughout the province than
in any other part of the world. It is needless to state
that the cigars made in Havana from the celebrated
Vuelta Abajo leaf are shipped from this capital to all
parts of the world, and may be found, it is said, on the
private desk of every crowned head in Europe. Large
shipments are made every year, also, to Japan and the
Orient. Thousands of men and girls are employed in
this industry, the value of which, in the export trade
alone, amounts to over $30,000,000 a year.

The Province has but one harbor of any importance,

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 29

the Bay of Havana, located near the center of the north
coast. It covers several square miles, and although the
entrance between the promontory of Morro and the Punta
is only a few hundred yards across, the channel is deep,
perfectly protected, and leads to an anchorage sufficient
for large fleets of vessels. The shore portions of the
main body of the harbor were rather shallow in early
times, but during recent years have been well dredged up
to the edge of the surrounding wharves, thus reclaiming
a large amount of valuable land, and greatly increasing
the capacity of the Bay for shipping purposes.

Since the inauguration of the Republic in 1902, a
series of large, modern, perfectly equipped piers, built
of concrete and iron, have been extended out from the
shore line of the western side of the bay, so that the larg-
est ships may now discharge and take on cargoes, elim-
inating thus, to a great extent, the custom of lightering
which prevailed only a few years ago. Owing to the
fact that nearly all the principal railroad systems of Cuba
radiate from the Capital, each with a terminal system
connecting with the wharves, the transportation facili-
ties of this port are superior to any others in Cuba.

Steam and sail vessels are leaving Havana for differ-
ent parts of the world every day in the year, and it is a
fact of which the Republic has reason to be proud, that
under normal conditions, or up to the beginning of the
great war, a greater amount of tonnage entered and left
the Harbor of Havana than that of any other city of the
Western hemisphere, with the exception of New York.
Dredging is still going on with new wharves in process
of construction and projected, so that today frontage on
the bay is valuable and hard to secure at any price.

Owing to its excellent transportation facilities and to
the local market furnished by the City of Havana itself,
the growing of fruits and vegetables, within a radius of
one hundred miles from the capital, has proved more
profitable than in other parts of the Island.

Although several small streams flow ta the north and

30 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

south of the dividing ridge, passing through the center
of the Island, none of them, either in length or depth,
could well be termed rivers.

The Almandares, that has its origin in a group of
magnificent springs near the western center of the Prov-
ince, meanders through a comparatively level valley,
emptying into the Gulf of Mexico, some three miles west
of Havana Harbor. The mouth of this stream, with a
depth of twelve or fourteen feet, accommodates schooners
that come for sand and cement at the factory.

The Vento Springs, already referred to, are a most
valuable asset of the City of Havana, since the abundant
flow of water, that through skilful engineering has been
conveyed some eight miles into the City, is of excellent
quality. The quantity of water, with economy, is suffi-
cient, according to engineering estimates, for a city of
one or two millions.

In the latter part of the 16th century the Italian en-
gineer Antonelli cut several ditches across the intercept-
ing ridges and brought water from the Almandares River
into the city of Havana, not only for domestic purposes
but in sufficient quantity to supply the ships that dropped
into port on their long voyages between Spain and the
eastern coast of Mexico.

On November 7, 1887, the famous Spanish engineer
D. Francisco Albear y Lara completed the present aque-
duct and system of water works by which the springs
of Vento are made to contribute to the present Havana,
with its 360,000 inhabitants, a supply of excellent drink-
ing water, although only a small portion of the flow is
utilized.

Owing to the peculiar coral and soft limestone forma-
tion on which the soil of this province has been deposited,
numerous lagoons and rivers flow beneath the surface at
various depths, ranging from 30 to 300 feet. These,
when found and tapped, furnish an abundance of splen-
did fresh water, seldom contaminated with objectionable
mineral matter. At the Experimental Station at San-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 31

tiago de las Vegas, a magnificent spring of water was dis-
covered at a little over one hundred feet in depth.

Other springs have formed a shallow lagoon just south
of the city of Caimito, the exit from which is furnished
by a small swift running stream, that after a surface flow
of five or six miles suddenly plunges down into the earth
some forty feet or more, disappearing entirely from view
and never reappearing, as far as is known. Like many
other streams of this nature, it may come to the surface
in the salt waters of the Caribbean, off the south coast.

The disappearance of this river takes place within a
hundred yards of the railroad station, in the town of San
Antonio de los Banos, and furnishes rather an interesting
sight for the tourist who is not familiar with this pe-
culiar phenomenon.

Although the City of Havana is considered one of the
most delightful winter resorts in the Western Hemisphere,
there are many who claim, and with reason perhaps, that
the Capital has many advantages also as a place in which
to spend the summer. Many visitors from the Gulf
States in summer have been loath to leave Cuba.

The mean annual temperature of Havana varies only
tw-elve degrees throughout the year. During the winter
the mercury plays between the two extremes of 58 and 78
degrees, with an average of about 70. During the sum-
mer the temperature varies from 75 to 88 degrees, al-
though there are occasional records where the mercury
has reached 92 degrees. Even at this temperature, how-
ever, no great inconvenience is experienced, since the
cool, strong, northeast winds, that blow from the At-
lantic, straight across the Island, sweep into the Carib-
bean the overheated atmosphere that otherwise would
hang over the land as it does in the interior of large con-
tinents, even in latitudes as high as northern Canada.

This continual strong current of air, that blows from
the Atlantic during at least 300 days in the year, with
its healthful, bracing influence, tempers the heat of the
sun that in latitude 22 is directly overhead, and probably

32 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

prevents sun strokes and heat prostrations, which are ab-
solutely unknown in Havana at any time of the year.

During the first Government of Intervention, Ameri-
can soldiers in the months of July and August, 1900,
put shingled roofs on barracks and quarters built at
Camp Columbia, in the suburbs of Havana, without the
slightest discomfort. Officers who questioned the men
with more or less anxiety, since they were not accus-
tomed to the tropics, were laughed at for their fears, the
soldiers declaring that, "although the sun was a little
hot, the breeze was fine, and they didn't feel any heat."
Of the thousands of horses and mules brought from Ken-
tucky and Missouri not one has ever fallen, or suffered
from heat prostration in the Island of Cuba.

The nights are invariably cool, so much so that even
in July and August, during the early morning hours, a
light covering is not uncomfortable. There is every
reason to believe that in the near future summer resorts
will be successfully established on many of the elevated
plateaus and mountainous parks in various sections of
the Island.

The Province of Havana, even during the times of
Spanish rule, had three or four fine military drives rad-
iating to the south and west of the Capital. Since the
inauguration of the Republic, these highways, shaded
with the evergreen laurel, the almendra, flamboyant and
many varieties of palm, including the royal and the
cocoanut, have been converted into magnificent automo-
bile drives, to which have been added many kilometers
of splendidly paved roads known as carreteras, which
connect the towns and villages of the interior with each
other as well as the capital with the principal cities of
other sections of Cuba.

Along these highways every three or four miles, are
found road repair stations supported by the Department
of Public Works, in which laborers to whom the keeping
up of the road is assigned, live, and which shelter the
necessary rollers and road builders under their direc-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 33

tion. These stations are well built, well kept, and some-
times rather picturesque in appearance. Their presence
should be a guarantee of the permanence and extension
of good road-building in Cuba.

The political, social and commercial heart of the Re-
public of Cuba centers in the city of Havana, hence the
province shares more directly in the national life and
prosperity than any other. Cables, wireless stations and
passenger ships of various lines coming and going every
day in the year, maintain constant touch with outside
world centers.

The Presidency, the various departments of the Fed-
eral Government, the Army, Navy, higher Courts, Con-
gress and Universities all pursue their activities at the
capital. The surrounding province, therefore, although
the smallest of the Island, will probably always remain
the most important political division of the Republic.

CHAPTER V
PROVINCE OF PINAR DEL RIO

Topographically, the Province of Pinar del Rio is
perhaps the most picturesquely beautiful in the Island.
Owing also to its variety of soils, mahogany red, jet
black, mulatto or brown, and the grey sands of the south
and west, Pinar del Rio offers marvellous opportunities
for many agricultural industries. Tobacco, of which it
produces over $30,000,000 worth annually, has always
been the most important product of this section of Cuba.

This Province, with its area of 5,764 square miles,
owing to the fact, perhaps, that it lay west of Havana,
the capital, and thus outside of the line of traffic and
settlement that began in the eastern end of the Island,
has played historically and politically a comparatively
small part in the story of the Pearl of the Antilles. Its
capital, Pinar del Rio, located about one hundred and
twenty-five miles west of Havana, on the Western Rail-
road, was founded in 1776, and claims today a popula-
tion of 12,000 people.

The delightful aroma and flavor of the tobacco grown
in the section of which this city is the center, and whose
quality has been equaled in no other place, has rendered
this province, in one way at least, famous throughout the
entire civilized world.

The topography of the province is more distinctly
marked than that of any other in Cuba. The greater
part of the surface, including the entire southern half,
together with the coast plains between the mountains and
the Gulf of Mexico, is quite level. Rising almost
abruptly from the flat surface, we have the western ter-
minus of the great central chain of mountains that fom^s

34

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 35

the backbone of the Island. This begins near the shores
of Guadiana Bay and extends in a northeasterly direc-
tion throughout almost the entire length of the Province.
The main or central ridge of the Pinar del Rio system
is knowTi as the Sierra de Los Organos, or Organ Moun-
tains, owing probably to the fact that the sides of these
mountains, in many places, form great perpendicular
fluted columns, whose giant organ like shafts reach up-
ward for hundreds of feet.

From this western terminal point the mountains rap-
idly wdden out like an arrow head, so that between San
Juan y Martinez on the south, and Malos Aguas on the
north, the foot hills approach close to both coasts. On
the south, however, they quickly recede towards the Capi-
tal, some tw^enty miles north, whence they continue
throughout the northern center of the Province in a line
more or less direct, leaving the southern half a great,
broad level plain.

On the north coast, from the harbor of San Gayetano
east, the mountains with their adjacent foothills follow
more closely the shore line, until at Bahia Honda, sixty
miles west of the city of Havana, they come almost down
to the head of the harbor, gradually receding a little
from this point east, until the chain disappears some ten
miles west of the boundary line that separates Pinar del
Rio from Havana.

Strange as it may seem, nature in her mysterious ca-
price has twice repeated the form of a shoe at separate
points in the outline of the south coast of Cuba. The
first, known as the Peninsula of the Zapata, with its
definitely formed heel and toe, is in the Province of
Santa Clara; and again a second perfect shoe, that re-
sembles with its high heel set well forward a slightly
exaggerated t)pe of the shoe so popular with the women
of Cuba and all Latin American countries, forms the ex-
treme western terminus of the Island and is almost sep-
arated from the mainland by a chain of shallow lakes.
It extends from Cape Francis on the east to Cape San

36 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Antonio, some seventy-five miles west, with an average
width of only about ten miles. Just in front of the heel
we have the indentation known as the Bay of Corrientes,
while on the opposite side, or top of the foot, lies the
quiet and protected Bay of Guadiana. The lighthouse
of Cape San Antonio is located on the extreme western
point. From the toe to the heel, following the arch of
the foot for forty miles, runs a low range of hills that
introduce the mountain system of Cuba, developing later
into the great central chain that continues to the other
end of the Island.

Between the City of Pinar del Rio and Vinales, the
range is broken up into three parallel ridges, the central
one composed of limestone, while the other are of slates,
schists and sand. The highest peak, known as the Pan
de Guajaibon, has an altitude that has been variously
estimated from 2500 to 3,000 feet. It rises abruptly
from the narrow plain of the north coast, about eight
miles, southwest of the harbor of Bahia Honda, and is
difficult of ascent. The various parks, plateaus and cir-
cular basins or sumideros, often of large extent, with
subterranean exits, form strangely picturesque spots that
burst on the traveler, mounted on his sturdy sure footed
pony, unexpectedly, and if a lover of scenery he will
leave with sincere regret.

One of these charming valleys, known as Vinales, lies
between two prominent ridges, about twenty miles north
of the City of Pinar del Rio, and is in many respects the
most glorious bit of scenery in all the West Indies. A
splendid macadamized automobile drive winds from the
capital up along the foot hills to the crest of the ridge,
whence it descends, crosses the valley, cuts through the
northernmost ridge, and continues on to La Esperanza,
on the north shore of the Province.

Rex Beach, the novelist, writer and traveler, looked
down from his auto into the valley for the first time in
1916. Stopping the machine suddenly, he jumped to
the ground and stood spellbound, looking down into that

Odit^^.i { Lin 1

-fiflidmoD 'jrfT -•.'.-. yjy^gj Dbafioioi ni fahov/

9c ,fiioR ffiDiqoiJ /7 .nislq bns ?SifD lo noiJ

lot dbfm gniW32-3§£ji. ;, 10 nui<:Ulii aiij ^J'i^fj oJ ai; gnhabiiv/ad oa

THE VINALES VALLEY

A scene in the heart of the wonderland of Pinar del Rio, which
innumerable tourists have declared second to no other spot in the
world in romantic beauty and fascinating charm. The combina-
tion of cliffs and plain, with the rich coloring of tropical flora, is
so bewildering as to create the illusion of a stage-setting made for
scenic effect by some master artist.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 37

beautiful basin, over a thousand feet below. After a
moment's pause he exclaimed: "I have visited every
spot of interest from northern Alaska to Panama, and
traveled through many countries, but never before in my
life have I met anything so picturesquely, dramatically
beautiful as this valley, this dream garden that lies at
our feet. There is nothing like it in the Western Hem-
isphere, probably not in all the world."

The length of the basin is not over twenty miles while
its width varies from three to ten. The floor is level,
covered with rich waving grass, watered by a little
stream, that comes meandering through the valley, dives
beneath a mountain range, afterwards to reappear from
a grotto-like opening on the northern side, beyond the
valley, whence its waters eventually find their home in
the Gulf of Mexico.

The peculiar, almost unreal, indentations of the north-
ern ridge are silhouetted so vividly against the sky above
that from the southern shore of the valley one is inclined
at times to believe them fantastically formed clouds.
The remarkable feature, however, of Vinales lies in the
peculiar round-topped mountains that rise abruptly from
the level surface below, and project themselves perpen-
dicularly into the air, to a height varying from 1200 to
2,000 feet.

Unique imposing formations, resulting from millions
of years of tropical rains and rock erosion, are covered
with dense forests of strange palms and thousands of
rare plants, whose varied foliage seems to be peculiar
to this isolated spot in the western central part of Pinar
del Rio. These singular dome-like lomas of Vinales,
looming up so unexpectedly from the valley below% are
usually accessible from one side, although but very few
people seem to have taken the trouble to climb to their
summits. All of these mountains and foothills, com-
posed of limestone formations, are honeycombed with
caves, some of them of rare beauty.

Shortly after the founding of the Republic, a group of

3S THE HISTORY OF CUBA

men composed mostly of naturalists and scientists, rep-
resenting the Smithsonian and like institutions in the
United States, together with several Cuban enthusiasts in
the study of nature, spent several months studying the
fauna and flora of the Vinales Valley. In fact they
rambled and worked through most of the line of foot-
hills that traverse Pinar del Rio between its central
ridges and the Gulf of Mexico. Some of the party were
specialists in tertiary fossils, others in the myriad va-
rieties of submarine life. These latter spent consider-
able time studying the various species of radiata, mol-
lusca, Crustacea and allied forms of life on the inner side
of the long coral barrier reef which parallels the shore
of the province of Pinar del Rio, from Bahia Honda to
Cape San Antonio. Many new varieties of the snail
family, also, were discovered and studied.

In this connection it may be stated that a very rare
variety of the palm family, the Microoyco Calocoma,
commonly called the Cork Palm, found only in Pinar
del Rio, seems, owing perhaps to some unfavorable
change in climate or surrounding conditions, to be disap-
pearing from earth. Not more than seventy specimens
are known to exist and these are all growing in an
isolated spot in the mountains back of Consolacion del
Sur. Several of them have been transplanted to the
grounds of the Government Experimental Station for
study and care. One also has been removed to the
grounds of the President's home at El Chico. The palms
are not tall, none reaching a height of more than twenty
feet, with a diameter of perhaps eight inches.

This rare palm is one of those miraculous survivals of
the carboniferous age that by some strange protecting in-
fluence have survived all the great seismic upheaval and
geological changes wrought on the earth's surface dur-
ing the millions of years since the epoch, when this and
similar varieties of carboniferous plants were the kings
of the vegetable world. Their dead forms are frequently
found imprinted in the coal fields of Pennsylvania and

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 39

Brazil, but only in Cuba has this family of ancient
palms persisted, mute survival of an antiquity that prob-
ably antedates any other living thing on earth. So slow
is the growth of this remarkable plant, that only one
crown of leaves appears each year. By simply counting
the circles of scars left by the fallen leaves, it is clearly
demonstrated that many of these remnants of a remote
geological past were living in the mountains of Pinar
del Rio long before Columbus dreamed of another con-
tinent. Some of them are today over a thousand years
old, and may have antedated the fall of Rome, if not the
birth of Christ on earth.

A strange variety of indigenous wild legumes, belong-
ing probably to the cow-pea tribe, is found growing lux-
uriantly in the low sandy soil of the southw^estern coast.
The vine forms a splendid cover crop of which cattle are
very fond, while the peas, although small, are delicious
eating. Plants of the lily 'ly are found in great
quantities in some of the ' water lagoons of this

Province, the ashes of whicx. .nish 60% of high-grade
potash.

Back in the mountains of Pinar del Rio, an exploring
party from the Experimental Station came across, most
unexpectedly, a little group of five immense black wal-
nut trees. No one knows whence came the seed from
which they sprung, since the district has never been set-
tled, and the black walnut is not known in any other
part of the Island. It is quite probable that many, if
not all, of the forest trees of a commercial value in the
Gulf States, and perhaps further north, would thrive in
Cuba if planted there.

There is much fine, valuable hard-wood timber in the
mountain ranges of Pinar del Rio, between Vinales and
Bahia Honda, but lack of facility for the removal to the
coast will probably cause it to remain unmolested for
some years to come.

The extreme length of Pinar del Rio, from southwest
to northeast, in a straight line, is nearly two hundred

40 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

miles, while its average width is fifty. The rivers and
streams all have their sources in the central divide, and
flow to the north and south, emptying into the Gulf of
Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. None of these, of
course, are available for navigation more than a few
miles up from their mouths, and while serving as drain-
age streams during the rainy season, many of them, un-
fortunately, cease to flow during the dry months of Feb-
ruary and March.

Some of them, with sources in large springs, back in
the mountains, could be used very advantageously, with
small expense, for irrigation purposes, thus rendering ad-
joining lands, especially in the tobacco and vegetable dis-
trict, doubly valuable. With the control of the water
supply, the profit to be made from these lands, on which
three or four crops may be gathered a year, would seem
almost incredible, especially if compared with the re-
turns of similar lands in the United States,

As an illustration, in any of the rich sandy soils bor-
dering streams like the Rio Hondo or Las Cabezas of the
south coast, or the Manimani or the Mulata of the north
coast, whose waters are always available for irrigation
purposes, in January, February or March corn and cow
peas may be planted on the same ground in the early
spring. Crops from these may be gathered in late May
or June, and the same land planted in carita beans, sweet
potatoes or squash, that may be removed in September,
leaving the field to be again planted in October with to-
bacco, peanuts, yuca, potatoes, peppers, tomatoes, egg
plants or okra, that when gathered in January and P>b-
ruary will bring splendid returns in either the local mar-
kets of Havana, or the early spring markets of the At-
lantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States.

The short streams flowing from the mountain chains
along the north coast are the Mariel, the Manimani, the
Mulata, the San Marcos, the Guacamayo, the Caimito
and Mantua, and the Rio Salado. Returning on the
south coast we have the Cabeza, the Guama, Ovas,

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 41

Hondo, Herradura, San Diego, Los Palacios, Bacura-
nabo, Sabanal and the Bayale.

The northern coast of Pinar del Rio is fortunate in
having three of the finest harbors of Cuba, bordering on
the Gulf of Mexico. First, the beautiful Bay of Mariel,
located about 30 miles west of Havana, has a narrow,
deep entrance with a lighthouse on the eastern point, and
the Government Quarantine Station for foreign ships on
the western side at the entrance. This Bay rapidly
widens out into a large deep basin, three miles in length
from north to south, with an average width of perhaps
a mile, together with several prolongations towards the
west, all furnishing excellent anchorage and securely
protected against any possible weather.

The shores of Mariel are beautfiul. Palm covered
bluffs several hundred feet in height rise almost abruptly
from the eastern side of the Bay. On top of this prom-
ontory or plateau is located a fine two-story building,
erected in 1905 as a club house, but occupied at the pres-
ent time by Cuba's Naval Academy. The view from
the crest over the surrounding country, with its tall moun-
tains in the distance, its forest covered foothills and great
valleys planted in sugar cane to the south and west, with
the Gulf of Mexico lying off to the north, presents a
picture of rare tropical beauty.

Between this promontory and the lighthouse a modern
cement factory was built in 1917, turning out at the
present time 1,000 barrels of Portland Cement per day,
while near the head of the Bay, a narrow gauge railroad,
bringing asphalt from back in the foothills, terminates
alongside the shipping wharf.

The quaint little fishing village of Mariel is located on
the shore at the southern end of the Bat. Its inhabitants,
although leading rather an uneventful life, seem quite
content to remain, although Havana is less than thirty
miles distant over a splendid automobile drive; one of
the most beautiful in Cuba. The Quarantine Station is
splendidly equipped and always in readiness to take care

42 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

of any ship's crew or passengers that may be detained
by orders of the authorities in Havana. Mariel, owing
to its natural beauty and its proximity to Havana, is
frequently visited by President Menocal in his yacht,
and furnishes a delightful, cool resting place for anyone
during the summer season.

Ten or twelve miles further west, we have the Bay of
Cabanas, another perfectly land-locked harbor, whose
deep entrance is divided by an island into two channels.
These open out into a wide picturesque expanse of wa-
ter, extending east and west for some ten miles or more,
with an average width of two or three.

On the small island that almost obscures the mouth of
the harbor from the sea, a little old Spanish fort, with
its obsolete guns, up to the present unmolested, bears
mute evidence to those times when visits of pirates, with
the equally troublesome corsairs of France and England,
were common, and provision for defense was absolutely
necessary. The village of Cabanas, in order to secure
better protection from the danger mentioned, is located
two or three miles back from the eastern end of the
harbor.

Great fields of sugar cane surround the Bay on all
sides. These, of course, have been greatly extended
since the European War and the increased demand for
sugar. A beautiful automobile drive that branches from
the main line or Pinar del Rio road, at Guana jay, passes
along the crest of the ridge of hills back of the Bay of
Cabanas, for over ten miles, giving at almost every turn
a new view to this beautiful sheet of water. Once known
to the outside world, this magnificent Bay of Cabanas
would soon become a popular resort for private yachts
that spend the winter season in tropical waters.

Fifteen miles further west, this same winding, hill-
climbing, macadamized Government driveway, reaches
another splendid harbor known as Bahia Honda, or Deep
Bay. Like most of the bays of Cuba, the entrance to
this, although comparatively narrow, is deep, and with

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 43

two range lights maintained for the purposes of easy
access day and night. This harbor extends back from
the Gulf of Mexico some seven or eight miles, with an
average width of three or four, furnishing good anchor-
age for ships of any draught.

Bahia Honda was selected by the United States Gov-
ernment in 1902, as a coaling station, a large body of
land on the western shore being reserved for that pur-
pose. Owing, however, to the completion of the Panama
Canal later, and to the consequent advantages of having
a naval station closer to the line of maritime travel, be-
tween Panama and the Atlantic Coast, Bahia Honda was
surrendered to the Government of Cuba and Guantanamo
became the principal United States Naval Station for
the West Indies.

The harbor of Bahia Honda, dotted with islands, and
with comparatively high lands extending all along its
western and southern shores, offers the same advan-
tages, not alone for an extensive commerce, but as a ren-
dezvous for foreign yachts and pleasure craft, during
the closed season or winter months of the north. The
little village bearing the same name, two miles back from
the Bay, is reached by a branch from the main driveway
connecting Bahia Honda with Havana and intermediate
cities.

The Bay of La Esperanza, one hundred miles west
of Havana, is inclosed by the long chain of islands and
coral reefs known as the "Colorados," that lie some eight
or ten miles off the mainland, and protect three-fourths
of the shore of Pinar del Rio from the heavy waves of
the Gulf of Mexico. The entrance to this and adjacent
bays is through narrow breaks in the barrier reef. Its
waters have an average depth of only two or three
fathoms; nevertheless considerable amounts of copper
ore are shipped from the mines some fifteen miles back
in the mountains during all seasons of the year.

Along the western shore of the main body of this
Province, we have the harbors of Dimas and Mantua.

44 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Like the Esperanza, they are comparatively shallow bays,
entered through breaks in the Colorado Reefs, but still
available for moderate draft vessels in all seasons of the
year.

In the angle of the ankle, formed by the shoe-like ex-
tension of the Province of Pinar del Rio, we have a
beautiful wide indentation of the coast known as Guar-
diana Bay. On the shores, some ten years ago, was lo-
cated a Canadian colony, but, owing to its isolation, and
lack of transportation of all kinds, it has since been
practically abandoned. This settlement, like the Isle of
Pines, had little to recommend it except its beautiful cli-
mate and its perfect immunity from the cares and trou-
bles of the outside world.

Aside from wide, deep indentations from the sea, and
shallow landing places at the mouths of rivers, the south
coast of Pinar del Rio has nothing to offer in the shape
of harbors. Nevertheless, owing to the presence of long
lines of outlying keys, and to the fact that northerly
winds produce only smooth water off these shores, there
is considerable local traffic carried on between various
places on the south coast and Batabano, whence con-
nection with Havana is secured by rail. A large part
of the charcoal used in the capital is cut from the low
lying forests that cover almost the entire length of Pinar
del Rio's south coast.

Across the ankle-like connection between the mainland
and the peninsula forming the western extremity of the
Island a depression runs from Guardiana Bay on the
west to the Bay of Cortez on the east. Numerous fresh
water lagoons or inland lakes lie so close that a small
amount of dredging would cut a canal from one shore to
the other, and save thus over a hundred miles of travel
for local coasting vessels. At the present time these
lakes, with their rich growth of aquatic plants, furnish a
retreat during the winter season for many varieties of
wild ducks, which the game laws of Cuba are endeavor-
ing to protect. Wild deer are also very plentiful

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 45

throughout the greater part of the Province, especially
in the mountainous districts and in the jungles of the
south coast.

The capital, Pinar del Rio, is a modem and rather at-
tractive little city of some 12,000 inhabitants, located on
a gentle rise of ground in the western center of the Prov-
ince. Immediately surrounding it is the celebrated to-
bacco district known as the Vuelta Abajo, or Lower Turn,
so called, perhaps, owing to the fact that the coast line of
this section recedes rapidly towards the south and west.

The choice lands of this locality cover a relatively
small area, not over thirty miles from east to west and
less than half that distance from north to south. And
even within this circumscribed area, the best tobacco is
grown only in little vegas, or oases, whose soil seems to
contain mineral elements the character of which has never
been discovered, but that nevertheless give to the plant a
peculiarly delightful aroma and flavor, not known to the
tobacco of any other part of the world. As a result, the
price of these little vegas, so favored by Nature, is very
high, often running into thousands of dollars per acre.

Pinar del Rio is connected with Havana by the West-
ern Railway, that traverses almost the entire length of
the Province, terminating at the present time at the to\Mi
of Guane within thirty miles of Guardiana Bay. This
railroad furnishes transportation for the great level
plains, together w4th the fertile foot hills that occupy
the southern half of the Province.

An extension of the line has been granted and con-
tracts signed carrying it around the western terminus
of the Organ Mountains, whence it will follow the line
of the north shore, returning east to Havana. This line
when completed will furnish transportation to the entire
length of the coast lands bordering on the Gulf of
Mexico.

Along the Western Road are a number of prosperous
little cities or villages, with populations varying from
two to eight thousand, including Artemisa, Candelaria,

46 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

San Cristobal, Taco-Taco, Los Palacios, Herradura,
Consolacion del Sur, Ovas, etc., all of which are located
along the foothills, and in the tobacco district is known
as the Partido or Semi Vuelta. Beyond Pinar del Rio,
we have San Luis, Martinez and Guane, which claim to
be within the charmed zone of Vuelta Abajo.

Tobacco is also grown around the little town of Vin-
ales, nestling in the center of that valley, and in nearly
all of the foothills that border the north coast; hence the
tobacco industry in this end of the Island, greatly ex-
ceeds in value, that of sugar cane, which up to the be-
ginning of the great war, was grown only in the basins
of rich heavy soil surrounding the harbors of Mariel,
Cabanas and Bahia Honda. There are seven ingenios
or sugar mills within the limits of this province that
produced together 645,000 bags of sugar in 1918.

The growing of fruits and vegetables, especially since
the birth of the Republic, was introduced into Pinar del
Rio as an industry by Americans, many of whom set-
tled along the line of the Western Road, many of these,
taking advantage of the rich sandy loams between the
railroad line and the Organ Mountains, have built up a
really important industry not before known to Cuba.

An American colony was started at Herradura, one
hundred miles west of Havana in 1902. Unfortunately,
the inhabitants of the little settlement gave nearly all of
their capital and energy to the planting of citrus fruit
groves, which as a whole, have rather disappointed their
owners. This was not because the growing of citrus fruit
cannot be successfully carried on in Pinar del Rio, but
was in most instances owing to the fact that the areas
planted were very much larger than the available help
could possibly handle and care for intelligently; hence
many groves, lacking this care, have lapsed into grazing
lands, whence they came.

The growing of vegetables, green peppers, tomatoes,
egg plants and beans, especially where farms were located
near enough to streams to provide irrigation during the

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 47

months of January, February and March, has proven
very profitable, and within the near future will undoubt-
edly be still further extended.

In the early part of the 19th century, and for that
matter, up to the abolition of slavery in 1878, the pro-
duction of coffee in the mountainous districts of Pinar
del Rio was the chief industry in the Province. Beauti-
ful estates, the ruins of which are frequently scattered
along the line of the Organ Mountains, especially in
that section of the range included between San Cristobal
and Bahia Honda, and splendid country homes with ap-
proaches cut from the main highways of travel up into
these delightful picturesque retreats, were occupied dur-
ing the summer months by prominent citizens of Ha-
vana, who found the growing of coffee both profitable
and agreeable. The coffee trees still grow, although un-
cared for, and many thousand of pounds are still brought
out of this almost forgotten district, on mule back, to be
sold to the country groceries of Bahia Honda and San
Cristobal, where the green beans bring twenty dollars
per hundred weight.

With the introduction of colonists from the Canary
Islands, Italy, and other countries w^ho love the fresh air
of the mountains, and who do not object to the isolation
which naturally follows a residence in remote sections,
there is every reason to believe that the coffee industry
will again be resumed. The settlement of these hills and
vales with families whose children can assist in the
picking of berries, will make the growing of coffee a great
success.

Until 1913 the mining interests of Pinar del Rio were
practically ignored, in spite of the fact that several ex-
cavations or shafts, that had been worked many years
before, gave evidence of the existence of copper. It was
in this year that Luciano Diaz, formerly Secretary of
Public Works, became interested in the district known
as Matahambre. Competent mining engineers, brought
from the United States, assured Mr. Diaz that his claim

48 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

was valuable, and merited the investment of capital.
This proved to be true, since the mine has produced high-
grade copper at the rate of about five million dollars per
year since the date of its opening.

Valuable deposits of manganese, too, have been re-
cently discovered in the western end of the province, and
will undoubtedly be developed in the near future. Ex-
cellent iron ore is found in the same chain, west of the
capital, but owing to the difficulties of transportation,
the mines have never been operated. Asphalt, asbestos
and other substances used in the commercial world, are
found at various points along the range, and await only
intelligent direction and capital for their development.

Although Narciso Lopez, with his unfortunate fol-
lowers, endeavored to arouse the people of this Province
against the iniquities of Spanish rule in the year 1852,
the revolution had never reached the west until the win-
ter of 1896, when General Antonio Maceo, with his army
of Cuban veterans, carried the "invasion of the Occident"
to its ultimate objective. After one of the most skilfully
conducted campaigns known to history, he rested for a
few weeks in the little town of Mantua, within a few
miles of the extreme 'western shore of Cuba.

The crossing of the Trocha, that had been built be-
tween the harbor of Mariel and the south coast, by this
invading army, was very distasteful to General Weyler,
who soon filled Pinar del Rio with well armed regi-
ments and gave Maceo battle for more than a year.
Short of ammunition, and in a section of the country
where it was almost impossible for the expedition to aid
him, General Maceo was compelled to keep up a run-
ning fight for many months, and in the Organ Mountains
and in their various spurs toward the north coast were
fought some of the most stubbornly contested engage-
ments of the War of Independence.

CHAPTER VI
PROVINCE OF MAT.\NZAS

Historically the province of Matanzas has played a
comparatively unimportant part in the various events
that have influenced the destiny of the Island. In the
early days of conquest, little mention of the district was
made. Grijalva, however, with a small body of men,
was the first of the Spanish conquerors who, pushing his
way along the northern coast of Cuba, reached the har-
bor now known as Matanzas on October 8, 1518. A
very substantial fort of the same excellent style of mili-
tary architecture as that seen in Havana, was erected on
the western shore of the Bay of Matanzas to protect the
city from invasion, in the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury.

The province of Matanzas joins Havana on the east
and has an area of 3,257 square miles. The surface as
a whole is comparatively level, although the chain of
mountains, which forms the backbone of the entire
Island, is represented along the center of Matanzas in a
series of low peaks and foothills sloping away to the
northwest comer, in which the capital, Matanzas, is lo-
cated on a bay of the same name.

Across the eastern center of the Province of Matanzas,
nature left a depression that extends from the north coast
at Cardenas, almost if not quite, to the shore of the Carib-
bean, at the Bay of Cochinos. The elevation above the
sea level is so slight throughout this belt that a series of
fresh water lagoons, swamps and low lands, -without
natural drainage of any kind, has rendered the district
almost useless for agriculture and grazing purposes dur-
ing the rainy season. Between the months of May and
November this section is frequently flooded so that ani-

49

50 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

mals occasionally perish and crops are frequently de-
stroyed.

To relieve the situation a drainage canal was proposed
a few years ago, that should furnish an artificial exit
for the surplus water into the Bay of Cardenas. The
length of the proposed canal was thirty miles, and work
began on the big ditch in 1916. At the present time it
is practically completed, at a cost of approximately five
millions of dollars. Its width varies from sixteen to
forty-four meters, carrying an average depth of one and
a half meters, or five feet.

The possibility of eventually converting this drainage
canal into an avenue of traffic, between the north and
the south coasts, furnishing thus water, or cheap trans-
portation, between Havana, Matanzas, Cardenas and
Cienfuegos, or other ports on the south coast, has nat-
urally appealed to engineers who have studied the ter-
rain. There are no engineering difficulties that would
prevent a canal of this kind from being converted into a
deep ship canal across the Island which would shorten
the distance between New York and Panama by at least
two hundred miles. Steamers bound north from Pan-
ama would then cross the Caribbean, pass through from
Cochinos Bay to Cardenas, entering at once the Gulf
Stream, the force of whose current would still further
shorten the time between Panama and Pacific ports on
the south, and all Atlantic ports north of Cuba. The
engineering problem could not be more simple, since it
is merely a question of dredging through earth and soft
limestone rock for a distance of seventy-five miles, tak-
ing advantage, as does the present drainage canal, of the
Auton River, where it empties into Cardenas Bay. That
such a saving of time and distance will some day be con-
summated is more than probable. Not only the eco-
nomics and benefits to be derived from such a shortening
of miles between local points in times of peace, but the
strategic advantage of the short cut for naval units in
time of war, are more than manifest to any one at all

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 51

familiar with the geography of Cuba and the West
Indies. Cuba, for commercial and economical reasons,
is deeply interested in the construction of a canal that
would make the Province of Matanzas an intersea gate-
way, not only for her own coastwise trade, but for much
of the northbound traffic that in the near future will carry
millions of tons of raw material from the west coast of
South America to the great manufacturing centers of the
North Atlantic.

Running parallel with the north shore, a short series
of remarkable hills rise abruptly from the surrounding
level plain to an altitude of a thousand feet or more.
One of these is known as the "Pan de Matanzas," w^hose
round, palm covered top may be seen for many miles at
sea. Ships coming from New York usually make this
peak above the horizon before any other part of the
Island comes into view.

The Yumuri River, at some time in the remote geologi-
cal past cut its way through these hills and found exit
in Matanzas Bay. The valley lying between two of
these parallel ridges, through which the Yumuri flows,
has been rendered famous by Alexander Humboldt, w^ho
visiting the spot in the winter of 1800, traveling over
most of South and Central America, pronounced it the
most beautiful valley in the world. No terms of praise
are too great to bestow on the Yumuri; but in truth it
must be said that Humboldt had never seen the Valley
of Vinales, one hundred and thirty miles west, or he
would probably have hesitated in bestowing such super-
lative praise on the Yumuri.

Only a few miles south of the Yumuri, another river
kno\\Ti as the San Juan has broken through the ridge
which lies along the western shore, and empties its waters
into the bay. Another small stream, the Canima, pour-
ing its waters into the Bay, a little further east, flows
through a series of limestone cliffs covered with a wealth
of tropical forest and furnishes a source of recreation to
visitors and many people of the capital, who make ex-

52 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

cursions to the head of navigation in motor launches.

The Province has an average length of about 70 miles,
with a width from north to south of fifty miles, and forms
a fairly regular parallelogram. From the center of the
coast line a narrow neck of land, known as the Punta
Hicaco, projects out toward the northeast for some fif-
teen miles, inclosing the Bay of Cardenas on the west.
The outer shore of this strip of land, known as El Vera-
dero, forms the finest bathing beach in all Cuba, to which
those who do not find it convenient to visit the United
States in summer, can come during the warmer months.

A chain of islands varying in size from little keys of
a half acre to that of Cayo Romano, seventy miles long,
extends from a few miles east of Punta Hicaco, along
the north shore of Cuba to the Harbor of Nuevitas, a
distance of three hundred miles. The Bay of Cardenas,
although large in extent is rather shallow in comparison
with most harbors of Cuba. Extensive dredging, how-
ever, has rendered it available for steamers of 20-foot
draft.

The southern boundary of the Province is formed by
the River Gonzalo, fairly deep throughout half its length,
but obstructed by shoals at the mouth. The upper exten-
sion of this stream, known as Hanabana, flows along
the larger part of its eastern boundary. Just south of
the Gonzalo River lies the great Cienaga de Zapato, or
Swamp of the Shoe, which belongs to the Province of
Santa Clara. The land along the northern bank of the
river is also low and marshy, with sharp limestone rocks
frequently cropping out on the surface. Of navigable
rivers, Matanzas has really none worthy of mention but
with railroads it is quite well supplied.

The surface as a whole is slightly rolling and has long
been under cultivation, especially in the production of
sugar cane, for which nearly all of this section is excel-
lently adapted. There are forty sugar plantations in ac-
tive operation in Matanzas Province, producing in 1917
over four million sacks. The cultivation of sugar cane,

JHE HISTORY OF CUBA 53

as in other provinces, is the chief source of wealth and
yields the greatest revenue.

In recent years, or since revolutions have practically
destroyed the industries of Yucatan, capital has been at-
tracted to the cultivation of henequen, and to the ex-
traction of the fibre knowTi as sisal, from which not only
rope and cables are made, but also binding twine, so
essential to the wheat crop of the United States.

Leaving the city of Cardenas, which promises soon to
be another great sisal center, and traveling west over the
automobile drive towards Matanzas, a perfect panorama
of growing henequen is spread out on both sides of the
road as far as the eye can reach. The peculiar bluish
green color of the fields of this valuable textile plant,
dotted as they are with royal palms, produce a fascinat-
ing effect as one passes through league after league of
henequen.

There are many limestone hills, plateaus and plains in
Matanzas Province, whose surface, covered with a thin
layer of rich red soil, is especially adapted to the growth
and cultivation of henequen, and it is quite possible that
the sisal industry, in a short time, may equal if not excel
in importance the sugar industry of the province.

Some twenty years ago a complete plant was estab-
lished in the city of Matanzas for the manufacture of
cables, cordage and binding twine for the local market.
Thousands of acres of barren hillsides south of the city
were planted in henequen at that time, and have since
furnished enough raw material to keep this rope factory
going throughout the entire year. The decortator, or
machine by which the sisal is separated from the pulp of
the leaves, is located near the crest of the hill, about a
half a mile back of the factory. From this point down
to the plain below, the green fresh sisal is conveyed by
gravity in iron baskets, where it is received by women
and spread out on wire lines to dry. Twenty-four hours
later it is carried into the factory and there spun into
rope of all sizes, from binding twine to the twelve-inch

54 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

hawsers. Water was found alongside the factory only
a few feet below the surface, where an underground
stream furnishes an inexhaustible supply.

Several millions were imested in the Matanzas hene-
quen industry, started by a company of Germans, who
recently sold out to local and foreign capitalists. It is
said that the capacity of the plant will be greatly in-
creased.

The city of Matanzas, capital of the Province, is
spread out over the side and along the base of the low
hill that forms the western shore of the Bay. Although
not possessing the wealth of Havana, the general appear-
ance of the city, with its substantial stone buildings, gives
every evidence of prosperity and comfort. Its popula-
tion numbers approximately 40,000, the greater part of
whom are interested in sugar, henequen and other local
industries of the section.

Matanzas was first settled in 1693, but the modern
city is laid out with wide streets, the oldest of which as
usual radiate from the central plaza or city park, a quaint
square ornamented with oriental palms and tropical
flowers. The most pretentious drive of this provincial
capital, however, has been built along the shore of the
bay, a beautiful wide avenue lined with laurels and
with statues of various local heroes, which add greatly
to its interest. The view from the opposite side of the
bay is excelled only by that of Havana from the heights
of Cabanas.

Just back of the City, or rather on the edge of its
northwestern boundary, perched on the front of a com-
manding promontory known as La Loma de Monserrate,
is located a quaint little cathedral dedicated to the Virgin
of El Cobre. The altar and background of the nave are
constructed of cork, brought from Spain for that pur-
pose many years ago. From the crest of this flat topped
hill, protected on the north by a stone wall, with spacious
seats of the same material, under the shade of laurel
trees, the traveller has spread before him a beautiful

ATAU .aa/IH XAJl ZA8

i ttil no liseJi finfiVfiH oJ vino bno33<i

vjij eonabb.M bns fBinsmmoa icsig sxiJ

ori ./j^J bsiooI-bnBf t to aiorf? ariJ noqu s.nibncla

id i; .vjviS nBo|_ ob'^ arf) lo iinfid arfj no iVwd ei

■noo e loi b^nil bnfi .noiJesivfin lo^ asbifbBi oldfiiimbfi §nibioB£

-'^nli.f.^ bne askuod ^mosbncif rftcw x^tiBq sonfiJaib sldfiisbrg

•^noid) ,83'nfidw bnjs «ix)b /gud rftiv/ vlJiBq buB ^gnibiiud

zaohqhoa^b lie io felsasav

SAN JUAN RIVER, MATANZAS

Second only to Havana itself on the northern coast of Cuba is
the great commercial and residence city of Matanzas. Instead of
standing upon the shore of a land-locked bay, however, Matanzas
is built on the banks of the San Juan River, a broad, deep stream
affording admirable facilities for navigation, and lined for a con-
siderable distance partly with handsome houses and business
buildings and partly with busy docks and wharves, thronged with
vessels of all descriptions.

..•Si^i^-ii ; '

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 55

view of the Yumuri Valley, over which Humboldt gazed
with admiration some hundred years ago.

Leading from the Capital are several very beautiful
automobile drives; one, reaching out towards the north
and rounding the eastern terminus of the Yumuri Valley,
gives a beautiful view of that charming basin as it
stretches away toward the west.

Another delightful drive sweeps along the south shore
towards Cardenas. A few miles from Matanzas, how-
ever, a sharp turn to the right leads up on to the sum-
mit of the ridge south of Matanzas. The drive passes
through the long stretches of henequen fields whose
plants furnish the fibre to the factory near the railway
station.

On the crest of the plateau, under the shade of a small
grove of trees, is found an odd little building that serves
as the entrance to the Bellamar Caves. This famous un-
derground resort is quite well known to tourists who
visit Cuba in the winter season. Visitors are lowered by
means of an elevator to a depth considerably below the
level of the sea, after which guides take the party in
charge and lead the way through several miles of inter-
esting underground passages, ornamented with stalac-
tites, stalagmites and other beautiful formations peculiar
to those old time waterways that forced their tortuous
channels through the bowels of the earth thousands of
years ago.

Many of these formations are of a peculiar pearl
white with a delicate texture that resembles Parian mar-
ble and gives a metal-like ring when struck. The entire
cave is lighted with electricity and entrance to the more
inaccessible spots has been rendered possible through ar-
tificial steps and balustrades. The city of Matanzas
furnished an interesting and pleasant spot in which the
tourist can spend a few days agreeably.

The harbor of Matanzas is a wide mouthed roadstead,
cutting back from the Atlantic some five or six miles
with a width varying from three to four. Dredging

56 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

within recent years has greatly improved the port, al-
though with deep draft vessels, lightering is still neces-
sary to convey freight from the warehouses out to the
various places of anchorage.

The view of the City, covering the slopes of the hills
on the west as you enter the bay, is very attractive. Since
the Province of Matanzas has no harbors on the south

CITY HALL AND PLAZA, CARDEKAS

coast, nearly all the sugar produced in her forty big mills
is shipped from either Matanzas or Cardenas, both of
which are connected with railroads that tap the various
agricultural sections lying south of them.

The second city of the Province, Cardenas, is located
on Cardenas Bay, a large and well protected harbor
thirty miles east of Matanzas. In comparison with most
of the harbors, however, it is comparatively shallow,
needing a good deal of dredging to make it available for
deep draft vessels. Cardenas, like Matanzas, is com-
paratively modern, with wide streets, regularly laid out.
The old square, with its statue of Cokimbus, has been
recently remodeled at considerable cost.

The first serious indication of revolt on the part of

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 57

the Cuban people against the rule of Spain, was started
here by General Narciso Lopez, who landed at Car-
denas with 600 men, mostly Americans from New Or-
leans, on May 19, 1850. Within a few hours they had
captured the Spanish garrison and made prisoners of
Governor Serrute and several of his officials. The city
was theirs, but to the unspeakable chagrin of General
Lopez, only one man came to his aid on Cuban soil, and
before nightfall, after defeating a Spanish column sent
to oppose him, the disappointed revolutionist abandoned
the city, and with his followers embarked for Key West.

It was on May 11, 1898, that Cardenas Bay became
the scene of an engagement between blockading vessels
of the United States fleet and the Spanish batteries, in
which Ensign Worth Badgley was killed, he being the
first officer to lose his life in the war.

The exportation of sugar from the rich lands tribu-
tary to this bay has always given Cardenas importance
as a shipping point and rendered it, for a city of only
30,000, quite a wealthy and prosperous community.
Many beautiful residences have been built along its
stately avenues, and the great henequen industry re-
cently started in the great fields to the west will add,
undoubtedly, to the wealth of the locality. Splendid
stone warehouses line the shore for a mile or more, with
a capacity sufficient to hold in storage while necessary
the enormous crop of sugar that is produced in the
province.

The presence of naphtha and many surface indica-
tions of oil deposits south and east of the City of Car-
denas have rendered that section attractive as a field of
exploration. Up to the present time, however, no pay-
ing wells have been found, although many expert oil
men are still confident that the entire district from Car-
denas to Itabo, and even further east, will some day
prove a valuable field for petroleum products.

Midway between Cardenas and the City of Matanzas,
just north of the beautiful highway connecting these two

58 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

cities, rises a range of low serpentine hills, whose altitude
is approximately five hundred feet. These peculiarly
symmetrical, round, loaf-like elevations above the level
surface of the surrounding country, are covered with a
short scrubby growth of thorny brush, and several va-
rieties of maguey, of the century plant family. Noth-
ing else will grow on these serpentine hills ; hence in most
respects they are decidedly unattractive. Since the be-
ginning of the international war, however, and the great
demand for chrome, some local mineralogists noted that
little streams and rivulets running down these hills left
deposits of a peculiar black, glistening sand. This sand,
when analyzed, proved to come from the erosion of chro-
mite, the mineral so much in demand by the smelting
industry of the United States for hardening steel. In
the spring of 1918 two well-known mining engineers and
geologists, with instructions from Washington, visited
several of these serpentine hills and found valuable de-
posits of chromite that will probably furnish a very
profitable source of this much sought-for mineral and
add greatly to the mining industry of this province.

During the War of Independence, Generals Antonio
Maceo and Maximo Gomez led the invading columns of
the Revolutionary Army into this Province for the first
time, in the fall of 1896. The great beds of dead leaves
lying between rows of cane, dried by the November winds,
formed useful material for the insurgent armies. The
torch once applied to this vast tinder box, with the pre-
vailing easterly winds, all Matanzas was aflame. Under
cover of the great canopy of smoke which rose over the
land, the invading armies of the Occident swept rapidly
on through the Province, fighting only when compelled
to, since the object of the invasion was to carry the war
into Havana and Pinar del Rio, where Revolution had
never before been known.

The vast cane fields that today line the railroad tracks
on both sides, bear no evidence of the ravages of Revolu-
tion, while handsome modern mills, many of which have

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 59

been erected since the beginning of the great European
War of 1914, have helped to feed the world with sugar
that could be obtained in sufficient quantities in no other
place.

CHAPTER VII
PROVINCE OF SANTA CLARA

Probably in no part of Cuba is the topography more
varied or the scenery more beautiful than in the Prov-
ince of Santa Clara, with its area of 8,250 square miles.
Mountain, valley, table land and plain seem to be thrown
together in this, the central section of the Island, in reck-
less yet picturesque confusion. The main system of
mountains, extending throughout the entire length of
Cuba, disappears and reappears along the northern
coast of Santa Clara, thus permitting easy communica-
tion between her rich central plains, covered with sugar
estates, and her harbors on the coast.

In the southwestern center of this province, we have
another group of mountains, foot hills and fertile val-
leys, in which are located some of the old coffee estates
of slavery days, established at the close of the 18th cen-
tury, shortly after the negro uprising in Santo Do-
mingo. These cafetales, in the early half of the fol-
lowing century, made Cuban coffee famous throughout
the world. Nestling within this mountain cradle lies
the city of Trinidad, founded by Diego Velasquez in
January, 1514. The presence of gold, which the In-
dians panned from the waters of the Arimo River, ren-
dered Trinidad an important center for the early Span-
ish conquerors during the first years of Cuban history.
Sancti Spiritus, lying on the edge of a fertile plateau,
some forty-five miles to the northeast, was founded a
few months later.

Gold was the god of the Spanish conquerors, and to
secure it was their chief aim and ambition. Its dis-
covery in this section of Santa Clara brought hope to

6o

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 61

them and despair to the Indians, on whom the former
depended for labor with which to dig this precious metal
from the earth. Velasquez found the natives of Trini-
dad, like those of Oriente, a gentle, confiding people,
who asked only permission to live as they had always
done; tilling the soil, fishing, visiting and dancing, at
which they were most clever, an ideal and harmless life,
suited to their tastes. They grew corn, sweet potatoes,
tobacco and }aicca, from which they made their cazaba
bread, still used by the country people of the present
day. The Spaniards, however, soon changed this
earthly dream of ease and joy into one of arduous and
repugnant toil, rather than to submit to which, many of
them committed suicide by poison and by drowning.

Velasquez, enthusiastic over the locality of his newly
founded city, Trinidad, despatched at once one of his
caravels to La Espanola in Santo Domingo, with orders
to bring back cattle, mares and other material necessary
to further the interests of the new settlement. And so
it came to pass that this section of southern Santa Clara,
with its fertile lands, beautiful scenery and promise of
gold, played an important part in the early colonization
of the Island.

The desire to accumulate wealth through the toil of
the unhappy Indians, of whom the Spaniards made
slaves, tempted even Las Casas, the great defender of the
Cuban aborigines, to accept assignment of them as a
gift from the crowTi, so that he might share something
of the prosperity of the early conquerors. It is re-
ported that Las Casas repented this departure from the
path of rectitude and aferwards was led to indorse the
importation o-f African slaves in order to save the Cuban
Indians from extermination.

It was on the banks of the beautiful Arimo, some
twenty-five miles east of Trinidad, that this celebrated
old historian and defender of the faith maintained his
ranch and other worldly possessions. Throughout the
sixteenth century this section of Santa Clara was an

62 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

important station on the line of travel between Santiago
de Cuba and Havana.

Caravels leaving "Tierra Firme," or the great con-
tinent of South America, that had been discovered,
frequently made this shore, on the other side of the Carib-
bean, or were driven against it by storms, the crews
afterwards reaching Santiago de Cuba by travel over-
land, along the south coast. Owing probably to the
fact that all of this coast, from the mouth of the Zaza
River east to the Cauto, is low, covered with dense jungle,
reports reached Spain to the effect that the most of Cuba
was a swamp, which is far from the truth, since by far
the greatest portion of the Island is rolling and moun-
tainous.

More than half of Santa Clara is hilly and broken,
although owing to the fertility of the soil this inter-
feres but little with the agricultural development of the
Province,

The mountains of Santa Clara form the central zone
of the great volcanic upheaval that raised Cuba from
the depths of the Caribbean. A broad belt or double
chain lies between the city of Santa Clara and Sancti
Spiritus. Another ridge, just south of the latter city,
extends from the Tunas de Zaza railroad to a point east
of the Manatee River, near the harbor of Cienfuegos. A
second group lies between the valleys of the rivers Ari-
mao and Agabama, names taken from the original ap-
pellations given them by the Indians.

The highest peak of this central region, called Potre-
rillo, is located some seven miles north of Trinidad and
reaches an altitude of about 3,000 feet. The mountains
of this group extend northwest as far as the Manicaragua
Valley. A third group, lying southeast of the city of
Santa Clara, includes the Sierra del Escambray and the
Sierra de Agabama. The average altitude of these lat-
ter hills is only about a thousand feet.

Another range of hills begins at a point on the north
coast of the Province, twenty-five miles east of Sagua la

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 63

Orande, and runs parallel with the north shore of the
Island into the Province of Camaguey, in the western
edge of which it disappears in the great level prairies
of that region. The highest peaks of this group are the
Sierra Morena, west of Sagua la Grande, and the Lomas
de Santa Fe, near Camajuani. A little further east they
are known as the Lomas de Las Sabanas.

With the exception of the northern coast range, the
other ranges of Santa Clara have resulted from seismic
forces, working apparently at right angles to the main
line of upheaval, leaving the tangled mass of hills and
valleys characteristic of this great central zone of the
Province. What is kno\^Ti as the schistose or pre-cre-
taceous limestones of Trinidad, are supposed to be the
oldest geological formations in the Island of Cuba.

From the foot of the Sierra de Morena, near the north
coast, a wide, comparatively level plain sweeps across
the province to the Caribbean Sea, broken only at a few
points by one or two abrupt hills, northeast of Cien-
fuegos. Lying between the northern chain of mountains
and the coast, we find quite a broad area of rich level
land washed by the salt water lagoons of the north shore.

Again, in the extreme southeast corner of Santa Clara,
is found another large tract comprising perhaps a thou-
sand square miles, located between the Zaza and the two
Jatabonico rivers that form the boundary between the
province and Camaguey.

Between the various chains of mountains and hills
that cut the province of Santa Clara into hundreds of
parks and valleys, are exceptionally rich lands, suffi-
ciently level for cultivation. The Manicaragua Valley,
sloping towards the eastern edge of the Bay of Cienfue-
gos, is noted for an excellent quality of tobacco grown in
that region.

Of navigable rivers, owing to the short plains between
the various divides and the coast line, there are prac-
tically none in Santa Clara, although many of the streams
have considerable length, and are utilized for floating

64 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

logs to the coast during the rainy season. The Arimao,
with its falls, known as the Habanillo, is a picturesque
and beautiful stream, rising in the mountains of the
southern central zone and flowing in a westerly direc-
tion, until it empties into the Bay of Cienfuegos.

The Canao, another small stream with its source near
the city of Santa Clara, takes a southwesterly course and
empties into the same bay. The Damiji flows south to
and into Cienfuegos Harbor. The Hanabana rises in
the northwestern extremity of the province, and, flowing
south and west, forms much of its western boundary until
it empties into a little lake a few miles north of the Bay
of Cochinos, known as El Tesoro or Treasure Lake.
From this a continuation of the river known as the Gon-
zalo runs due west throughout the entire length of the
Cienaga de Zapata until it empties into Broa Bay, an
eastern extension of the Gulf of Batabano.

The Manatee River is a small stream with its origin
in the center of the nest of mountains that lie north of
Trinidad; it flows south until it empties into the Carib-
bean, midway between the ports of Casilda and Tunas de
Zaza. The Zaza River has its origin in a number of
tributary streams in the northeast corner of the Prov-
ince, whence it wanders through many twists and turns
between hills and ridges until it finally passes into the
level lands of the southwest corner of the Province,
whence it eventually finds its way to the Caribbean.
This stream, although troubled with bars just beyond
its mouth, has a considerable depth for some twenty or
more miles.

The most important river commercially in this Prov-
ince, known as the Sagua, rises a little west of the capi-
tal, Santa Clara, and flows in a northerly direction until
it empties into the Bay across from the Sagua Light on
the north coast. The city of Sagua la Grande, a small
but aristocratic place, is located about twenty miles from
the mouth of the river, and is the distributing point for

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 65

that section of the province. The river is navigable for
small boats from the port of Isabella to the city above.
Another small stream, knowni as the Sagua la Chica,
empties into the Bay, about midway between La Isa-
bella and the port of Caibarien.

The southern coast of the province of Santa Clara,
not including the indentations of gulfs and bays, is ap-
proximately two hundred and fifty miles long. This, of
course, includes the great western extension of the Za-
pata peninsula, whose shore line alone is one hundred
miles in length. The northern shore, bordering on the
great lagoon that separates it from the Atlantic, measures
one hundred and fifty miles, forming thus for the prov-
ince an irregular parallelogram whose average width
north to south is about seventy-five miles.

In the center of the south coast we find the harbor of
Cienfuegos, a beautiful, perfectly land-locked, deep wa-
ter bay, dotted with islands, from whose eastern shores
tall mountains loom up on the near horizon in majestic
beauty. One of the picturesque old forts of the early
eighteenth century on the west bank of the channel guards
the approach to the entrance of the harbor. Some ten
miles back, located on a gently sloping rise of ground,
is the city of Cienfuegos, which next to Santiago de Cuba
is the most important shipping port on the southern
coast.

As far as definitely known, this port was first entered
by the old Spanish conqueror Ocampo, in 1508. No
definite settlement was made however, until 1819, when
refugees from the insurrection of Santo Domingo estab-
lished a colony, from v.'hich rose the present city of
Cienfuegos. These involuntary immigrants from Santo
Domingo were coffee growers in their own country, and
from their efforts splendid coffee plantations were soon
located in the rich valleys and on the mountain sides that
lay off towards the northeast. Large groves of coffee,
struggling under the dense forest shade, still survive in

66 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

these mountains, from which the natives of the district
bring out on mule back large crops of excellent coffee that
have been grown under difficulties.

The city of Cienfuegos, or a Hundred Fires, is sub-
stantially built of stone and brick, wdth wide streets,
radiating from a large central plaza, as in all Spanish
cities the favorite meeting place where people discuss the
topics of the day, and listen to the evening concerts of
the municipal band. There are several social clubs in
Cienfuegos and a very good theatre, together with the
city hall and hospital, which are creditable to the com-
munity. The population is estimated at 36,000.

Sancti Spiritus is one of the seven cities founded by
Diego Velasquez in 1514, and still bears every evidence
of its antiquity. Its streets are crooked and but little
has been done to bring the city into line with modern
progress. This is owing largely to the fact of its being
located twenty-five miles back from the southern coast,
and some ten miles off the main railroad line, connect-
ing the eastern and western sections of the Island. It
lies on the edge of the plateau, east of the mountain group
of southern Santa Clara. An old, tall-towered church
still bears the date of its founding by Velasquez. The
city has a population of approximately 15,000.

Santa Clara, the capital, is located almost in the cen-
ter of the province, well above the sea level. Its wide,
well kept streets are suggestive of health and prosperity.
It was founded in 1689, and until 1900 was the eastern
terminus of the main railroad line running east from
Havana. Rich fertile lands surround Santa Clara,
while the mining interests a little to the south, although
not at present developed, give every promise of future
importance. Copper ore of excellent quality has been
found in a number of places between Santa Clara and
Trinidad, while silver, zinc and gold are found in the
same zone, but up to the present not in quantities that
would justify the investment of capital in their develop-
ment. Ten thousand tons of asphalt are mined an-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 67

nually not far from the city, and considerable tobacco is
grown in the surrounding country. The population is
estimated at 15,000.

Sagua la Grande is located on the Sagua River,
twenty miles up from the port of La Isabella. It is a
comparatively modern city, with wide streets, and is the
distributing point for the large sugar estates of that sec-
tion. Its population is 12,000.

The Port of Caibarien has grown into considerable
importance owing to the large amount of sugar brought
in by the different railroads, for storage in the big stone
warehouses that line the wharf. Shoal water necessi-
tates lightering out some fifteen miles to a splendid an-
chorage under the lee of Cayo Frances, on the outer edge
of the great salt water lagoon which envelops the entire
north coast of Santa Clara. The population is 7,000.

Five miles west, on the line between Caibarien and
Santa Clara, is the little old city of Remedios, that once
occupied a place on the x:oast, but was compelled by the
unfriendly visits of pirates, as were many other cities in
Cuba in the olden days, to move back from the sea shore,
so that the inhabitants could be warned of an approach-
ing enemy. Around Remedios, large fields of tobacco
furnish the chief source of income to this city of six or
seven thousand people.

The great "Cienaga de Zapata," or Swamp of the
Shoe, so called on aK:count of its strange resemblance to
a heeled moccasin, although geographically a part of
the Province of Matanzas, has nevertheless always been
included in the boundaries of Santa Clara. Its length
from east to west is about sixty-five miles, with an aver-
age width from north to south of twenty. Many plans,
at different times since the first Government of Inter-
vention, have been formed for the drainage and reclaim-
ing of this great swamp of the Caribbean, whose area is
approximately twelve hundred square miles.

Nearly all of the surface is covered with hard wood
timber, growing in a vast expanse of water, varying in

68 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

depth from one to three feet. Owing to its lack of in-
cline in any direction, reclamation of this isolated terri-
tory is not easy, although the land, after the timber was
removed and the water once disposed of, would prob-
ably be very valuable.

Enormous deposits of peat and black vegetable muck,
cover the western shores of this peninsula and will, when
utilized for either fuel, fertilizer or gas production, be an
important source of revenue, as will its forests of hard
wood, when transportation to the coast is rendered
possible.

Just east of the heel of the "Zapata" and some forty
miles west of the harbor of Cienfuegos, a deep, open,
wide-mouthed roadstead projects from the Caribbean
some eighteen miles into the land, almost connecting with
the little lake known as "El Tesero" or Treasure, located
at the most southerly point of the Province of Matan-
zas. This roadstead, known as the Bay of Cochinos,
furnishes shelter from all winds excepting those from
the south, against which there is no protection, although
abutments thrown out from the shore might give arti-
ficial shelter, and thus render it a fairly safe harbor.

Quite a large forest of valuable woods lies a few miles
back from the coast, between Cochinos Bay and the har-
bor of Cienfuegos. The broken surface of the dog
teeth rocks, however, upon which this forest stands, ren-
ders the removal of logs difficult and dangerous, since
iron shoes will not protect the feet of draft animals used
in the transport of wood to the coast. A narrow strip of
very good vegetable land, running only a mile or so back
from the beach, extends along this section of the coast
for about twenty-five miles, awaiting the intelligent ef-
forts of some future gardener to produce potatoes and
other vegetables on a large scale for spring shipments to
Cienfuegos.

The great source of wealth of the Province of Santa
Clara, of course, is sugar, and to that industry nearly
all of her industrial energies are at present devoted.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 69

Seventy great sugar estates, with modem mills, are lo-
cated within the Province, yielding an annual produc-
tion of approximately eight million sacks of sugar, each
weighing 225 pounds. The fertility of Santa Clara soil
has never been exhausted, and the great network of rail-
roads covering the Province furnishes easy transportation
to the harbors of Cienfuegos, Sagua and Caibarien,
Considerable amounts of sugar are also shipped from
Casilda, the port of Trinidad on the south coast, and
some from Tunas de Zaza, at the mouth of the Zaza
River, thirty miles further east. The sugar produced
in the Province in 1918 was valued at eighty million
dollars.

The tobacco of Santa Clara Province, although not
of the standard quality obtained in the western provinces
of Pinar del Rio and Havana, still forms a very im-
portant industry. That coming from the Manicaragua
Valley, northeast of Cienfuegos, has obtained a good
reputation for its excellent flavor.

Coffee culture in the mountains and valleys lying be-
tween Trinidad and Sancti Spiritus, introduced by
French refugees from the Island of Santo Domingo the
first years of the last century, was at one time a very
important industry. With the introduction of ma-
chinery for hulling and polishing the beans, and with
better facilities for the removal of the crop to the coast,
there is every reason to believe that this industry, in the
near future, will resume some of the importance which
it enjoyed half a century ago, or before the abolition
of slavery rendered picking the berries expensive, since
this work can be done only by hand. The growing of
coffee offers a delightful and profitable occupation to
large families, since the work of gathering and caring
for the berries is a very pleasant occupation for women
and children.

Owing to the fertility of the soil of Santa Clara, the
abundance of shade, rich grass, and plentiful streams of
clear running water flowing from the mountains, there is

70 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

perhaps no section of Cuba that offers greater induce-
ment to the stock raiser.

The breeding of fine horses, of high-grade hogs, of
angora goats, sheep and milch cows, will undoubtedly,
when the attention of capital is called to the natural ad-
vantages of this section of the country, rival even the
sugar industry of the Province. In no part of the world
could moderate sized herds of fine animals be better
cared for than on the high table lands and rich valleys
of Santa Clara.

Santa Clara bore its part in the trials and sufferings
endured by the patriots of Cuba in the War of Inde-
pendence. The range of mountains between Sancti
Spiritus and Trinidad, during those four fearful years,
furnished a safe retreat for the Cuban forces, when
the soldiers of Spain, abundantly supplied with am-
munition, which their opponents never enjoyed, pressed
them too hard. It was in these dense forests and rocky
recesses which Nature had provided that the great old
chieftain. General Maximo Gomez, in the last years of
the war, defied the forces of Spain.

CHAPTER VIII
PROVINCE OF CAMAGUEY

According to the log of the Santa Maria, the first
glimpse of the Island of Cuba enjoyed by Christopher
Columbus, sailing as he did in a southwesterly course
across the Bahama Banks, is supposed by many to have
been at some point along the northern coast of what is
now known as the Province of Camaguey. The area of
this Province, including Cayos Romano, Guajaba, Sa-
binal and Coco, is approximately 11,000 square miles.
The general trend of the coast lines is similar to those
of the Province of Santa Clara, and the length of each
is approximately one hundred and seventy-five miles.
The average width of the province is eighty miles, al-
though between the southern extension of Santa Cruz
del Sur and the mouth of the harbor of Nuevitas, we have
a hundred miles.

The same gentle graceful inoffensive natives were
found in this section of Cuba as those who first received
the Spanish conquerors at Baracoa and other places in
the Island. Those of the great plains belonging to this
province were known as Camagueyanos, and although
for many years Spain called this section of the island
Puerto Principe, the musical Indian tenn stuck, and with
the inauguration of the Republic in 1901, the name of
Camaguey was officially given to this part of Cuba.

In the year 1515, Diego Velasquez, with his fever for
founding cities, established a colony on the shore of the
Bay of Nuevitas, and christened it Puerto Principe. In
those early days, however, there was no rest for the un-
protected, hence the first settlement was moved in a
short time to another locality not definitely known, but

71

72 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

a year later the city was permanently established in the
center of the province, about fifty miles from either
shore, where it remains today, with many features of its
antiquity still in evidence.

The first of the old Spanish adventurers who succeeded
in making himself both famous and rich without flagrant
trespass of law, was Vasco Porcallo de Figueroa, one of
the original settlers whom Velasquez left in the City of
Puerto Principe founded in 1515. This sturdy old
pioneer did not bother with gold mining, but succeeded
in securing large grants of land in the fertile plains of
Camaguey, where he raised great herds of cattle and
horses, exercising at the same time a decidedly despotic
influence over the natives and everyone else in that re-
gion.

Vasco, although spending more than half of the year
in the cities of Puerto Principe and Sancti Spiritus, had
a retreat of his own, probably some place in the Sierra
de Cubitas, where he held princely sway and guarded
his wealth from intrusive buccaneers and other ambitious
adventurers of those times. It was he who, meeting
Hernando de Soto on his arrival at Santiago de Cuba, es-
corted that famous explorer across the beautiful rolling
country of Camaguey, which he seemed to consider as
his own special domain, and finally accepted the position
of second in command in that unfortunate expedition of
De Soto into the Peninsula of Florida in 1539. Fight-
ing the savage Seminoles was not however to his taste,
and the old man returned to Havana inside of a year,
mounted his horse and rode home, firmly convinced, he
said, that Camaguey was the only country for a white
man to live and die in.

Even with the removal of the capital far into the in-
terior, the peacefully inclined citizens were not free from
molestation and unwelcome visits. During the middle
of the seventeenth century, the famous English corsair,
Henry Morgan, afterwards Governor of Jamaica, paid
his respects to several Cuban cities, including Puerto

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 73

Principe. In 1668 he crossed the Caribbean with twelve
boats and seven hundred English followers, intending to
attack Havana, He afterward changed his mind, how-
ever, and landing in the Bay of Santa Maria began his
march on the capital of Camaguey,

The inhabitants made a desperate resistance, the
Mayor and many of his followers being killed, but the
town was finally compelled to surrender and submit to
being sacked, during which process many women and
children were burned to death in a church behind whose
barred doors they had taken refuge. Morgan finally
retired from Puerto Principe with his booty of $50,000
and five hundred head of cattle.

During the Ten Years' War the province of Camaguey
became the center of active military operations. The in-
habitants of this section had descended from the best
families of Spain, who had emigrated from the Mother
Country centuries before. They were men of refinement
and education, men whose prosperity and contact with
the outside world had made life impossible under the
oppressive laws of the Spanish monarchy.

Ignacio Agramonte, a scion of one of the best known
families of Camaguey, was a bom leader of men, and
soon found himself in command of the Cuban forces.
The struggle was an ill advised one, because the odds
in numbers were too great, and the resources of the
Cubans were so limited that success was impossible.
The effort of General Agramonte and his followers, all
men of note and social standing, was a brave one, and
the sacrifice of the women, the mothers, sisters and
daughters, of that period, were not surpassed by any
country in its fight for liberty.

But the unfortunate death of General Agramonte, and
the long uphill struggle, brought about the inevitable.
The treaty of Zanjon in 1878 was ultimately forced
upon the revolutionists, many of whom afterwards emi-
grated with their families to the United States, where
some have remained as permanent citizens of that Re-

74 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

public; among others, Doctor Enrique Agramonte, a
brother of Ignacio, who after fighting through the ten
tiresome years, left his country, never to return.

In the more recent struggles for Cuban liberty, known
as the War of Independence, Camaguey . again took a
prominent part and General Maximo Gomez, who had
succeeded Agramonte at his death, and General Antonio
Maceo, had the satisfaction of carrying the campaign
of the Occident, from Oriente, across Camaguey, where
they defeated the Spanish forces in several battles, and
in the winter of 1896 led their victorious troops in three
parallel invading columns, to the extreme western end
of the Island. Thus the revolution was carried for the
first time in history beyond the Jucaro and Moron Tro-
cha, or fortified ditch, near the western border of Cam-
aguey.

Narrow crooked streets still prevail in some parts of
Camaguey and the erection of modern buildings, that
has become so common in Havana, has not reached this
quiet old municipality of the plains which still lives and
breathes an atmosphere smacking of centuries past.

Topographically, although the surface of Camaguey,
in altitude and contour, varies much, it is, as a whole,
far more level than any other province in the Island.
Great fertile savannas and grass covered plains pre-
dominate in almost every part. The potreros, or graz-
ing lands, of Camaguey, have made it famous as the
breeding place par excellence for horses and cattle, and
its equal is not found anywhere in the West Indies.

In spite of the comparatively level nature of the coun-
try, with the exception of the low, heavily covered for-
est belt that sweeps along the entire southern coast, ex-
tending back from ten to twenty-five miles, the rest of
the province partakes more of the character of an ele-
vated plateau, interspersed with low ranges of moun-
tains and foothills, which give pleasing diversity to the
general aspect of the country.

The longest range in Camaguey is a continuation of

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 75

the great central chain, that follows the trend of the
Island. It begins with a prominent peak kncnvn as the
Loma Cunagua, which rises abruptly from the low level
savannas ten miles east of the town of Moron in the
northwestern comer of the Province. A little further
southeast, the range again appears and finally develops
into the Sierra de Cubitas, which follows the direction of
the north coast, terminating finally in the picturesque
peak of Tubaque, on the Maximo River.

A small stream, known as the Rio Yaguey, sweeps west
along the southern edge of this ridge and finally breaks
through its western end, emptying into the lagoon or Bay
of Cayo Romano. A parallel range of lower hills, with
various spurs, lies a little south of the main Sierra de
Cubitas. The bountifully watered prairies, valleys and
parks south and west of these hills form the ideal graz-
ing ground of the Pearl of the Antilles. Several large
herds of fine hogs and cattle, recently established in this
section, will soon play an important part in the meat
supply of Cuba.

As in Santa Clara, an independent group, or nest, of
low peaks and beautiful forest covered hills, occupies
the southeastern center of the Province of Camaguey.
The lands in this section are very fertile and the delight-
ful variety of hill, valley and plain renders it a very at-
tractive country in which to make one's permanent home.
Several elevations of moderate altitude, known as lomas,
rise from the more level country, a little to the north of
the above mentioned district, and form something of a
connecting link between the Najasa, or mountains of the
southwest, and the Sierra de Cubitas of the north shore.

As before mentioned, several chains of the north coast,
originating in Santa Clara, sweep over and terminate in
Camaguey, some ten or fifteen miles east of the boundary
line. The mountains of this district, owing to the fact
that they were distant from the coast, have never been de-
nuded of their virgin forests, and with the opening of the
Cuba Railroad, connecting Santa Clara with Santiago

76 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

de Cuba on the south coast, and the Bay of Nipe on the
north, a considerable quantity of valuable timber has
been taken out within recent years.

Camaguey has no rivers of importance, although nu-
merous streams flowing from the central plateaus, to-
ward both the northern and southern coast, are utilized
during the rainy season to float logs to shipping points.
These short streams, varying from ten to thirty miles
in length, each form basins or valleys of rich grass lands
that are always in demand for stock raising. Between
the Jatobonico del Sur, which forms a part of the west-
ern boundary of the Province, and the Rio Jobobo, which
forms the southeastern boundary, are more than a dozen
streams emptying into the Caribbean. Among these are
Los Guiros, the Altamiro, the Najasa and the Sevilla.

The Najasa has its origin a little south of the City of
Camaguey, and passes through a heavily timbered coun-
try, carrying many logs to the landing of Santa Cruz del
Sur. A railroad was surveyed from the latter city to
the capital some years ago, but has never been com-
pleted.

On the north coast, between the Jatibonico del Norte,
which forms the northwestern boundary, and the Puentes
Grandes, forming the northeastern, we have some ten or
a dozen short streams, among the most important of
which are the Rio de los Perros, emptying into the Lagoon
of Turaguanao; the Rio Caonao emptying into the la-
goon of Romano; the Jiguey, cutting through the west-
ern extremity of the Sierra de Cubitas and emptying
into the eastern end of the above mentioned lake; the
Rio Maximo, rising on the south side of the chain, sweep-
ing around its eastern end and emptying into the Bay
of Sabinal; and the Saramaguacan, one of the longest
in the province, rising in the mountains of the Najasa,
whence it flows in a northeasterly direction and empties
into the harbor of Nuevitas. Both the Chambas and the
Rio Caonao, when not obstructed by mud bars at their

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 77

mouths, are navigable for light draft schooners and
sloops, for some twelve or fifteen miles into the interior.

At no point on the south Coast of Camaguey can be
found any harbor worthy of the name, although at Ju-
caro, Santa Cruz del Sur and Romero, considerable tim-
ber and sugar are shipped from piers that extend out into
the shallow waters of the Jucaro and Guacanabo gulfs.

The long system of salt water bays or lagoons, begin-
ning at Punta Hicaco in Matanzas, continues along the
entire north coast of Camaguey and terminates in the
beautiful harbor of Nuevitas. The lagoons of Cam-
aguey are formed by a series of keys or islands, of which
Cayo Romano, seventy-five miles in length, with an av-
erage width of ten miles, is the most important.

Although most of the area of this island is covered
with a dense jungle of low trees, the eastern end rises to
quite a high promontory, with more or less arable land,
planted at the present time in henequen, and yielding a
very good revenue to the owner. An unknown number
of wild ponies, variously estimated at from six hundred
to two thousand, inhabit the jungles of Cayo Romano,
living largely on the leaves of the forest, and conse-
quently degenerating in size and form to such an extent
that they have a very little commercial value.

Cayo Coco, really an extension of Romano, reaches
out to the westward some fifteen miles further, while the
Island of Guajaba, separated by a narrow pass with only
three feet of water, incloses the beautiful harbor of
Guanaja. Sabinal, some 25 miles in length by ten or
twelve in width, forms the northern shore of the harbor
of Nuevitas. On the latter key there is fairly good
grazing ground and much territory that eventually will
probably be planted in henequen, as is the promontory
of Nuevitas, just north of the city of that name.

These salt water lakes or bays are often twenty-five
miles or more in length by ten wide and with an average
depth of fifteen feet. Unfortunately, not only are they

78 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

separated by narrow passes seldom carrying over three
feet, but exit to the ocean for any craft drawing over five
or six feet is very difficult to find.

The harbor of Nuevitas, in the northwestern comer of
the Province, is one of the finest in the Island. Its width
varies from three to ten miles, while its length is approxi-
mately twenty, carrying excellent deep water anchorage
throughout almost its entire extent. A peculiar river-
like opening, six miles in length, deep and narrow, con-
nects it with the Atlantic Ocean.

In proportion to its size, the province of Camaguey has
less railroad mileage than any other in the Island. Un-
til 1902, when Sir William Van Horn, late President of
the Cuba Company, connected the City of Santa Clara by
rail with Santiago de Cuba, there were but two railroads
in that section of the country. One, the Camaguey &
Nuevitas Road, connected the capital with practically
the only shipping point on the north coast. Another,
built many years before, for military purposes, con-
nected the town of San Ferrando, on the north coast, with
Jucaro on the south coast, and ran parallel with what
was known as the Trocha, a military ditch about eighty
kilometers in length, with two story concrete forts at
each kilometer, and low dug-outs, or shooting boxes, lo-
cated midway between the principal forts. The ground
was cleared on either side of the railroad for a kilo-
meter, while on both sides a perfect network of barbed
wire, fastened by staples to the top of wood stakes, ren-
dered it difficult for either infantry or cavalry to cross
from one side to the other. This modern military de-
vice was established by the Spanish forces in 1895, so
as to prevent the Cubans from carrying the revolution
into Santa Clara and the western provinces.

As in the other provinces of Cuba, cane growing and
the making of sugar forms the chief industry, although,
owing to the wonderfully rich potreros, or grazing lands
of Camaguey, the raising of live stock in the near future

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 79

will doubtless rival all other sources of wealth in that
section.

There are twenty sugar mills in the province with a
production of approximately 3,000,000 bags. The two
mills at Las Minas and Redencion, between Camaguey
and Nuevitas, have been in operation for many years,
but with the opening up of the Van Horn railroad a new
impetus was given to sugar production, and during the
past ten years, some eighteen new mills have been estab-
lished at various points along the railroad where lands
were fertile and comparatively cheap.

A line known as the North Shore Railroad of Cuba,
connecting the city of Nuevitas with Caibarien, in Santa
Clara Province, some 200 miles west, was surveyed and
capital for it was promised, in 1914. ' The breaking out
of the European war delayed work on the road, but its
completion can be assured in the near future.

Several large sugar estates have been located along
the line that will open up a territory rich in soil and
natural resources. Important iron mines, too, in the
foothills of the Sierra de Cubitas, are waiting only this
transportation to add an important revenue to the Prov-
ince. A great deal of valuable timber will be available
when the line is in operation.

Owing to the large beds of valuable ore belonging to
the mineral zone of the Cubitas, it is quite probable that
the mining industry will some day rank next to that of
general farming in Camaguey, although as far as nat-
ural advantages are concerned, there is no industry which
in the end can rival that of stock raising.

During 1895, the first year of the War of Independ-
ence, over a million head of sleek, fat cattle were regis-
tered in the Province of Camaguey, where the grasses
are so rich that an average of seventy head can be kept
in condition throughout the year on a hundred acres of
land. The two grasses commonly found in Camaguey
were both brought from abroad. Of these, the Guinea,

k

80 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

imported from western Africa, grows luxuriantly on all
the plateaus and higher lands of the province, while the
Parana, a long running grass from the Argentine, does
best in the lower lands and savannas. One stock man
of Camaguey at least, has succeeded in producing splen-
did fields of alfalfa, from which seven or eight cuttings
are taken each year.

Fruits of all kinds, especially oranges and pineapples,
grow luxuriantly in this Province, but owing to the lack
of transportation, the railroad haul to Havana being
practically prohibitory, shipments of fruit and vegetables
to the northern markets are confined almost entirely to
a steamer which leaves the harbor of Nuevitas once every
two weeks.

Owing perhaps to the rich and comparatively cheap
lands offered by the Province of Camaguey, more Amer-
icans are said to have settled in this section than in any
other part of Cuba. The first colony, called La Gloria,
was located in 1900 on the beautiful bay of Guanaja or
Turkey Bay, some five or six miles back from the shore.
The location, although healthful and in a productive
country, was most unfortunate as far as transportation
facilities were concerned. Two hundred or more fami-
lies made clearings in the forests of the Cubitas, and there
made for themselves homes under adverse circumstances.
The worst of these was the isolation of the spot, and
lack of communication with any city or town nearer than
Camaguey, some forty-five miles southwest, or Nuevitas,
forty miles east ; without railroads, wagon roads, or even
water communication by vessels drawing over seven
feet.

The Zanja, or ditch, some three miles in length, con-
necting the harbor of Nuevitas with Guanaja Bay, was
recently dredged to a depth of three or four feet, so that
launches can now pass from La Gloria to Nuevitas, but
aside from the fertility of the soil, there was but little to
commend La Gloria as a place of permanent residence.
Only grit and perseverance on the party of sturdy Amer-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 81

icans has sustained them during the past sixteen years.
But they concluded to make the best of the situation in
which they found themselves, and are producing nearly
everything needed for their subsistence. A considerable
amount also of farm produce and fruit will soon be
shipped to northern markets from the harbor of Nue-
vitas. A very creditable agricultural fair is held in La
Gloria each winter, and the contents of the weekly paper
seems to bear every evidence of progress and content. In
spite of adverse conditions, the people of La Gloria have
prospered and enjoy there many comforts not found in
colder climates, and with the opening up of the North
Shore Road, this really attractive section of country,
which includes several smaller colonies scattered along
the water front, will be brought in close touch once more
with the civilization of the outside world.

Another colony, also unfortunate in its location, was
established at Ceballos on the Jucaro and Moron rail-
road, about eight miles north of its junction with the
Cuba Company road at Ciego de Avila. The soil was
well adapted to the growth of citrus fruit, and large
groves were laid out by Americans, some ten or twelve
years ago, along the line of the old clearing that bordered
the Trocha. The groves, as far as nature could pro-
vide, were successful, but the excessive freight rates be-
tween Ceballos and either the city of Havana or the Bay
of Nipe, have proved discouraging to the original set-
tlers.

Several smaller colonies have been located along the
Cuba Company's railway and the line connecting the city
of Camaguey with Nuevitas, but again the long distance
between these points and large markets, either local or
foreign, have worked to the disadvantage of the growers.
If stock raising instead of fruit growing had occupied
the time and attention of these American pioneers, more
satisfactory results would have been obtained.

Nuevitas, located on the southern shore of the har-
bor of that name, is a modern city with wide streets and

82 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

a population of approximately 7,000 people. Its loca-
tion, at the terminus of the Camaguey Railroad, and on
the only harbor of the north coast, renders it a place of
considerable commercial importance, since large quanti-
ties of sugar, lumber and livestock leave the port during
the year, while coasting steamers of local lines touch
every few days.

Camaguey, the capital of the Province, so long known
as Puerto Principe, has a population of about 45,000
people. The natives of this city have long enjoyed and
merited an enviable reputation for integrity, intelligence
and social standing, traits that were inherited from a
number of excellent families who came to Cuba from
Southern Spain in the early colonial days. The rich
grazing lands of Camaguey and the salubrious climate,
not only of the north coast, but of the great plateaus of
the interior, were very attractive to the better class of
pioneers who came over in the sixteenth century in
search of peace, permanent homes and wealth based on
legitimate industry.

There is no section of the Island more highly esteemed
for the integrity of its people than that of the isolated,
aristocratic city of Camaguey, such as the families of
Agramonte, Betancourt, Cisneros, Luaces, Sanchez,
Quesada and Varona. Nearly all these families through
the long painful Ten Years' War suffered privations,
followed by exile and loss of everything but pride, dig-
nity and good names.

Most of them made permanent homes in the United
States, but many of their children, educated in the land
that gave their parents shelter, have returned to their
native country and occupied positions of trust and re-
sponsibility in the new Republic.

CHAPTER IX
PROVINCE OF ORIENTE

The Province of Oriente, called by Spain Santiago de
Ciiba, forms the eastern extremity of the Island, and is
not only the largest in area, but, owing to the exceptional
fertility of its soil, the great number of magnificent har-
bors, the size and extent of its plains and valleys, to-
gether with the untold wealth of its mines of iron, cop-
per, manganese, chrome and other minerals, it must be
considered industrially as one of the most important
provinces of Cuba.

Its area consists of 14,213 square miles, its form is
triangular, Cape Maysi, the eastern terminus of the
island, forming the apex of the triangle, while the base,
with a length of about one hundred miles, extends from
Cabo Cruz along the Manzanillo coast to the north
shore. One side of the triangle, formed by the south
coast, has a length of nearly 250 miles, while another,
without counting the convolutions of the sea coast, bor-
ders for two hundred miles on the Atlantic.

Mountain chains follow both the north and south shores
of Oriente, while about one-third of its area, which com-
poses the eastern section, is a great tangle or nest of
irregular mountains, flat top domes, plateaus, and foot-
hills, with their intervening basins, parks and valleys.

While the main chain, or mountainous vertebrae, seems
to disappear in the Sierra de Cubitas of Camaguey, it
reappears again, just west of the Bay of Manati, in the
extreme northern part of the province, and extends along
the north shore at broken intervals, until it finally melts
into that great eastern nest of volcanic upheavals that
forms the eastern end of the Island. From this north
shore chain, innumerable spurs are thrown off to the

83

84

THE HISTORY OF CUBA

southward between Manati and Nipe Bay, reaching some-
times twenty-five or thirty miles back into the interior.

Along the southern shore of Oriente from Cabo Cruz
to Cabo Maysi, ascending at times abruptly from the

A MOUNTAIN ROAD, ORIENTE

beach, and at others dropping back a little, we have the
longest and tallest mountain range of Cuba. One peak,
known as Turquino, located midway between the city of
Santiago de Cuba and Cape Cruz, reaches an altitude
of 8,642 feet.

From the crest of this range, known as the Sierra
Maestra, the great network of spurs are thrown off to
the north toward the valley of the Cauto, while between
these mountain offshoots several of the Cauto's most im-
portant tributaries, including the Cautill, Contraemaestre
and Brazos del Cauto, have their sources.

Most of the mountainous districts are still covered

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 85

with dense tropical forests that contain over three hun-
dred varieties of hard woods, the cost of transportation
alone preventing their being cut and marketed.

The interior of the Province, from the Mayari River
west, is the largest valley in Cuba, with a virgin soil
marvellously rich through which runs the Cauto River,
emptying into the Caribbean Sea, a little north of the
City of Alanzanillo. This stream, with its tributaries,
forms the most extensive waterway in the Island,

A tributary on the north knowTi as the Rio Salado, ris-
ing south of the city of Holguin, flows in a westerly di-
rection and empties into the Cauto just above the land-
ing of Guamo, some fifteen miles from the Caribbean.
Small streams empty into all of the numerous deep water
gulfs and bays that indent the north coast of Oriente.
Each serves its purpose in draining adjacent lands, but
none, with the exception of the Mayari, is navigable.
This stream, the most important perhaps of the north
coast, rises in the eastern center of the Province, cutting
its way west along the base of the Crystal Mountains,
until it reaches their western end, whence it makes a
sharp turn to the north, and after tumbling over the
falls, gradually descends and empties into Nipe Bay.

The Sagua de Tanamo and its tributaries drain quite
a large basin east of the Mayari, and empty into the
Gulf of Tanamo. The Moa, a short stream, rises not
far from the Tanamo but flows north to the ocean. The
Toa, flowing east, cuts through valleys for fifty miles,
and finally empties into the Atlantic thirty miles west of
Cape Maysi.

But little is knowTi of this river; and like many of
the streams which for countless centuries have been cut-
ting their tortuous ways through the table lands and
gorges of the eastern part of Oriente, its shores have
seldom been visited by human beings since the Siboney
Indians, who once made that section their home, gave
up trying to be Christians and took their chances of hap-
piness on the other side of the "Great Divide."

86 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

The Harbor of Puentes Grandes, that separates Oriente
from Camaguey on the north coast, is sufficiently deep
for ordinary draft vessels, but owing to sand spits and
coral reefs that extend for some distance out into the
Atlantic, and to the fact that good harbors lie within a
few miles on either side, commerce up to the present
has never sought this place as a port of entry.

About twelve miles east, however, we have the Bay of
Manati with a fairly easy entrance and an elbow-like
channel that will give anchorage to vessels drawing
fathoms. On the shore of Manati Bay has been estab-
lished a very fine sugar mill surrounded by thousands of
acres of cane grown in the Yarigua Valley. Sugar is
exported from this port directly to the United States.

Within the next twenty-five miles, east, are found two
well protected harbors, Malagueta and Puerto Padre.
The latter is the deeper and more important, owing to the
large basin of fertile lands immediately surrounding it.
Puerto Padre has excellent anchorage and belongs to the
type of narrow mouthed bays so common to the north
coast of Cuba.

On the eastern shore of Puerto Padre are located two
of the Cuban American Sugar Company's largest mills,
"El Chaparra" and "Las Delicias," each with a ca-
pacity of 600,000 bags of sugar per year. These two
mills are considered, both in location and equipment,
among the finest in the world. The sugar, of course,
is shipped directly from Puerto Padre to New York,
rendering them independent of railroad transportation,
and consequently large revenue producing properties.

General Mario Menocal, General Manager of the
Cuban American Company's mills, began his great in-
dustrial career at Chaparra, which he left to assume the
Presidency of the Republic in 1913. It is a very neat
little city, with wide avenues, comfortable homes, good
schools and many of the conveniences of much larger
places. President Menocal visits Chaparra several times
during the grinding season each year.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 87

Some thirty-five miles east we have the large open
roadstead of Jibara, with sufficient depth of water to
provide for shipping, but with very little protection from
northerly gales. On the western side of this harbor is
located the city of Jibara, which forms the shipping
place for the rich Holguin district, some thirty miles
south.

Some forty miles further east, around the bold Punta
de Lucrecia, we have another fine, deep-water, perfectly
protected harbor, known as the Bay of Banes, whose rich
valleys lying to the south and west contribute cane to
the Ingenio Boston, belonging to the United Fruit Com-
pany, whose output is approximately half a million bags
of sugar per year.

Southeast of Banes, about fifteen miles, we reach the
entrance of the Bay of Nipe, considered one of the finest
and best protected harbors in the world. Its entrance is
sufficiently wide for ships to pass in or out at ease, while
the bay itself furnishes forty-seven miles of deep water
anchorage.

Nipe Bay is a little round inland sea, measuring ten
miles from north to south by fifteen from east to west.
The Mayari River flows into the bay from the southern
shore and furnishes, for light draft boats, transportation
to the city, some six miles up the river. On the north
shore of the bay is located the town of Antilla, terminus
of the northern extension of the Cuba Company's lines,
and one of the most important shipping places on the
north coast. On the Bay of Nipe is located the Ingenio
Preston, one of the finest sugar mills in Cuba, con-
tributing 371,000 bags in the year 1918 to the sugar
stock of the world.

Some seven or eight miles east of the entrance of Nipe
lies another large, beautiful, land-locked bay, or rather
two bays, separated by a tongue of land extending into
the entrance of the harbor and known as Lavisa and
Cabonico, both of which are deep, although the first
mentioned, with a length of eight miles and a width of

88 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

six, is the larger of the two. The shores of both these
harbors are covered with magnificent hardwood forests,
most of which have remained intact. The lands sur-
rounding them are rich, and will, within a very short
time, probably be converted into large sugar estates.
These beautiful virgin forests, with their marvellously
fertile soil, surrounding the harbors of Lavisa and Ca-
bonico, might have been purchased ten years ago at
prices varying from eight to twelve dollars an acre. In
1918 they were sold at fifty dollars per acre, and were
easily worth twice that sum.

Fifteen miles further east we have another fine deep-
water harbor known as Tanamo. Its entrance is com-
paratively easy, and although the bay is very irregular
in shape, the channel furnishes good anchorage for fairly
deep draft vessels. The Sagua de Tanamo River, whose
tributaries drain the rich valleys south of the bay, has its
source in the great nest of mountains in the eastern end
of Oriente.

Baracoa, some twenty miles east, is a small, picturesque
anchorage, but with almost no protection against north-
erly winds, and for this reason cannot rank as a first
class port, although a good deal of shipping leaves it
during the year, the cargoes consisting mostly of cocoa-
nuts and bananas, for which this district has always
been quite a center of production in Oriente.

It was on this harbor that Diego Velasquez made the
first settlement in Cuba, in the year 1512. He called
it the city of Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion, but the orig-
inal Indian name of Baracoa has remained attached to
the spot where Spanish civilization began in the Pearl
of the Antilles.

It was here that General Antonio Maceo with a little
band of thirty men landed from Costa Rica in March,
1895, and began the War of Independence, which ulti-
mately led to the formation of the Republic of Cuba.

Rounding Cape Maysi at the extreme eastern end of
Cuba, and following the south coast, no harbor is found

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 89

until we reach Guantanamo Bay, nearly a hundred miles
west. This magnificent harbor was first visited by Col-
umbus on his second voyage when he sailed along the
south coast in 1494. The celebrated navigator referred
to it as "Puerto Grande," but the original Indian name
of Guantanamo again replaced that of the white in-
vaders.

The Bay of Guantanamo is considered one of the finest
harbors in the world. It was selected from all the ports
of Cuba by Captain Lucien Young in 1901 as the best
site for a naval station in the West Indies for the United
States Navy. Arrangements were later made between
Cuba and authorities in Washington, by which it was
formally ceded for that purpose. Not only is Guan-
tanamo a large bay, extending some fifteen miles up into
the interior, but its mouth is sufficiently wide and deep
to permit three first-class men of war to enter or leave
the harbor abreast at full speed, without danger of col-
lision or contact with the channel's edge on either side.

The Guantanamo River, after draining the great wide
valleys that lie to the north and west, enters the Bay on
the western shore. The City of Guantanamo, some fif-
teen miles back, is connected by rail with the coast, and
also with the city of Santiago de Cuba, fifty miles fur-
ther west. It was founded toward the end of the eight-
eenth century by French refugees from Santo Domingo,
and has at present a population of 28,000.

Eleven large sugar estates are located in the Guan-
tanamo valley, which is one of the largest cane producers
in Oriente.

Fifty miles further west we find the harbor of San-
tiago de Cuba, absolutely land-locked, and probably the
most beautiful of all in the West Indies. Its entrance,
between two headlands, is narrow and might easily es-
cape observation unless the passing vessel were less than
a mile from shore. Rounding the high promontory of
the east, with its old-fashioned fort of the middle eight-
eenth century, one enters a magnificent bay, dotted with

90 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

palm covered islands, gradually opening and spreading
out towards the north. Its winding channels present
changing views at every turn, until the main or upper
bay is reached, on the northern shore of which is located
the city of Santiago de Cuba, that for half a century
after its founding in 1515 was the capital of Cuba.

Santiago played a very important part in the early
history, or colonial days, of the Pearl of the Antilles,
passing through the trials and tribulations that befell
the first white settlers in this part of the Western Hem-
isphere. Not many years after its founding, it was
sacked and burned by French corsairs.

Santiago was one of the few cities in all Cuba that re-
tained the names given them by their Spanish founders.
It was here in June, 1538, that Hernando de Soto, ap-
pointed Governor by the King of Spain, recruited men for
that unfortunate expedition into the great unknown ter-
ritory across the Gulf, which cost him his life, although
his name became immortal as the discoverer of the Mis-
sissippi River.

Santiago became famous in American history through
the destruction of Cervera''S fleet by Admirals Sampson
and Schley, and the capitulation of the city to United
States forces in July, 1898. It has a population of about
45,000. The city lies on the southern slope of the
plateau, rising from the bay towards the interior. Its
streets are well laid out and fairly wide, with several
charming little parks, or plazas, such as are found in
all Latin American cities.

The commercial standing of the city is based on the
heavy shipments of sugar and ores, iron, copper and
manganese mined in the surrounding mountains. The
building of the Cuba Company's railroad connecting it
with the other end of the Island and with the Bay of
Nipe on the north coast, did much towards increasing
the importance of Santiago. The outlying districts of
the city are reached by a splendid system of automobile
drives, surveyed and begun at the instigation of General

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 91

Leonard Wood, then goveraor of the Province, in 1900.
These well-built, macadamized carreteras wind around
hills and beautiful valleys, many of which have a his-
toric interest, especially the crest of the Loma San Juan,
or San Juan Hill, captured by the American forces in
the summer of 1898. A unique kiosk has been built on
the summit of this hill from which a view of El Caney,
over toward the east, and many other points which fig-
ured in that sharp, brief engagement, are indicated on
brass tablets, whose pointed arrows, together with ac-
companying descriptions, give quite a comprehensive
idea of the battle which loosened the grip of the Spanish
monarchy on the Pearl of the Antilles, and made Cuban
liberty possible for all time to come. In the valley just
below is a beautiful Ceiba tree, under which the peace
agreement between American and Spanish commanders
was concluded in July, 1898. The grounds are inclosed
by an iron fence with various inscriptions instructive and
interesting.

Santiago is named in honor of the Patron Saint of
Spain, and the Archbishop of Cuba, in keeping with cus-
tom and early traditions, still makes his headquarters
in this picturesque and historically interesting capital of
the Province of Oriente.

Between Santiago and Cabo Cruz, one hundred and
fifty miles west, is but one harbor worthy of mention, the
Bay of Portillo, a rather shallow although well protected
indentation of the south coast. On the rich level lands
at the base of the mountains back of and around the
harbor of Portillo, grow enormous fields of cane, feed-
ing the mill on the western side of the bay. Several
other indentations of the south coast furnish landing
places from which either timber or agricultural products
may be shipped, when southerly winds do not endanger
the anchorage. A small harbor knowTi as Media Luna,
between Cabo Cruz and Manzanillo, forms the shipping
place of the Ingenio Isabel, which produced 175,000
sacks of sugar in 1918.

92 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

The somewhat shallow harbor of Manzanillo is lo-
cated at the mouth of a small stream in the Sierra
Maestra Vessels of more than fifteen feet draft, find the
Manzanillo channel somewhat difficult. The city itself
is comparatively modern, with wide streets regularly
planned and laid out. Its population is about 18,000,
although the municipal district contains some 35,000 in-
habitants. Manzanillo is one of the chief shipping ports
and distributing points for the rich valley of the Cauto,
the largest valley by far in Cuba. This river during the
rainy season is navigable for river boats for some hun-
dred miles to the interior. Bars that have formed near
its mouth on the west shore of Guacanabo Gulf pre-
vent the navigation of deeper craft.

The City of Bayamo, located on the Bayamo River, a
tributary of the Cauto, is connected by the southern
branch of the Cuba Company's Railroad with Man-
zanillo, twenty-five miles west, and also with Santiago
de Cuba. It was one of the original seven cities founded
by Diego Velasquez in 1514. In the early days of
colonial occupation, Bayamo passed through the same
period of trials and tribulations that afflicted nearly all
of the early settlements in Cuba.

Historically it has never been prominent as the birth-
place of struggles in which the natives of Cuba en-
deavored to throw off the yoke of Spain. It was the
home of Cespedes, the first revolutionary President of
the Island, who freed his slaves in 1868, and with a
small force of men raised the cry known as the "Crita
de Baire," that started the Ten Years' War.

Again, in February, 1895, General Bartolome Maso
•with his son and a few loyal companions left his home
in the city of Bayamo, and at his farm called "Yara"
declared war against the armies of the Spanish Mon-
archy, never surrendering until Independence was event-
ually secured through the defeat of Spain by American
forces in 1898. The city, although boasting only of
some 5,000 inhabitants, is located in the fertile plains

olUSi'J '>

•J£V/

ON THE CAUTO RIVER

The Cauto River, traversing Oriente Province, is the largest
stream in Cuba, and is of inestimable value for navigation, for
water supply, and for drainage. It is the salient feature of many
fine landscape scenes, ranging from the idyllic to the majestic.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 93

of the Cauto Valley, known throughout the world as
the largest sugar cane basin ever placed under cultiva-
tion. The Cuban National H^-mn had its origin in
this little city and is knowTi as the ''Himno de Bayamo."

Holguin, located in the northern center of the Island,
among picturesque hills and fertile valleys, is the most
important city in northern Oriente. It was founded in
1720, receiving its charter in 1751, and boasts of a
population of about 10,000. The harbor of Gibaro,
twenty-five miles north, with which it is connected by
rail, is the shipping port of the Holguin district. The
country is very healthful and long noted as a section in
which Cuban fruits acquire perhaps their greatest per-
fection. Americans living in this city, within the last
ten years, have established splendid nurseries, known
throughout the Island.

Victoria de las Tunas, a small city located on the
Cuba Company's Railroad, some 20 miles from the west-
ern boundary of the Province, acquired celebrity in the
War of Independence owing to its capture after a siege
of several days by the Cuban forces under General
Calixto Garcia, in the fall of 1897.

It was in this engagement that Mario Menocal, then
Chief of Staff with the rank of Colonel in the insur-
gent forces, distinguished himself through a brilliant
charge made at a critical moment, in which he led his
Cuban cavalry against the well equipped forces of Spain.
Colonel Menocal was wounded in this engagement, but
as a reward for intelligent and courageous action he was
shortly afterward made Brigadier General, and given
command of the insurgent forces in the Province of Ha-
vana, which he held up to the time of the Spanish sur-
render in 1898.

An incident indicative of the character and discipline
of the Cuban forces took place at the capture of Vic-
toria de las Tunas, when General Calixto Garcia, after
caring for the Spanish wounded, furnished an escort to
protect his prisoners and non-combatants who wished to

94 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

leave the city, in a march overland to the town of
Manati, where they were delivered into the safe keeping
of the Spanish authorities, as the Cubans were unable
to keep prisoners owing to shortage of food. General
Calixto Garcia was a native of Holguin, owing to which
fact, perhaps, much consideration was shown to both
persons and property in the surrounding district, where
he had both friends and relatives.

The sugar industry, of course, as in all provinces but
Pinar del Rio, is the chief source of wealth in Oriente.
The entire northeastern half, including the great valley
of the Cauto River, as well as the rich lands in the valley
of Guantanamo, and the basin surrounding the Bay of
Nipe, are devoted almost entirely to the production of
sugar. The European War of 1914 gave a great im-
petus to this industry, owing to the demands made by
the allies for this staple food product. An illustration
of this may be found in the increased acreage of cane in
Oriente between the years of 1913 and 1918. In 1913
Oriente was producing 3,698,000 bags, while in 1918
the sugar crop reach 6,463,000 bags. Forty-two large
sugar centrals are in operation in Oriente at the pres-
ent time, with a marked increase each year.

Next in importance to the production of sugar ranks
stock raising. Thousands of acres that cover the
plateaus, foothills, mountains, parks and valleys, sup-
plied as they are with an abundance of fresh water and
splendid grass, furnish strong inducements to the stock
grower of Oriente, who has nothing to fear from cold,
snow, drought or storm. The profits of stock raising
where the business is conducted under intelligent man-
agement, are certainties, which is true of all sections of
the Island adapted to this industry.

Coffee, as in the provinces of Santa Clara and Pinar
del Rio, owes its introduction into Cuba to the French
refugees who, driven by revolution out of Santo Do-
mingo, fled to Cuba and settled there in the first years
of the nineteenth century. The large profits that have

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 95

resulted from the cultivation of sugar cane have un-
doubtedly drawn capital from the coffee industry, and
unless a sufficient amount of cheap labor can be se-
cured, the gathering of this crop is not always profitable.
In spite of the rather heavy tariff, and the excellent
quality of the bean, it is compelled to compete with the
imported article from Porto Rico and other countries.
It is quite probable, too, that through years of neglect
in cultivation, the habit of prolific bearing has de-
teriorated.

The rich, narrow, deep soiled vales among the tangled
mountains that cover the eastern extremity of the prov-
ince are especially adapted to the growth of cacao, but
in spite of most satisfactory returns most of the farmers
of Cuba seem to prefer life in the open potreros, with
its cultivation of sugar cane and care of live stock, to
that of comparative retirement, imposed upon those who
devote themselves to coffee and cacao in the mountainous
districts. Cacao, nevertheless, owing to the more ex-
tensive manufacture of chocolate in all parts of the
world, is in increasing demand, and it is practically
certain that the near future will bring immigrants from
mountainous countries, who will find the cultivation of
both coffee and cacao to their liking, as well as to their
permanent profit.

But very little tobacco is grown in Oriente, aside from
that which has long been cultivated on the banks of the
Mayari River. In the neighborhood of the little village
bearing that name, considerable tobacco of an inferior
grade has been grown for many years. The German
Government up to the blockading of her ports in 1914,
consumed almost the entire Mayari crop, the soldiers of
that country seeming to prefer it to any other tobacco.

More valuable timber grows in the interior of Oriente
than in any other part of Cuba, and much of it will
probably remain standing until more economical methods
are introduced by which logs can be conveyed to the
coast for shipment. Large amounts of cedar and ma-

96 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

hogany are exported every year from Oriente, especially
from the valley of Sagua de Tanamo, which empties into
Tanamo Bay on the north coast.

Several American colonies have been located in the
different parts of this province, most of them devoting
their energies to the growing of fruits and vegetables that
are shipped to northern markets from the terminus of
the railroad at Antilla, on Nipe Bay. Some of them,
too, have built up stock farms that are giving splendid
results.

Owing to the size of the province, and its compara-
tively few inhabitants, greater opportunities for coloniza-
tion are found here than in the western end of the Island.
Thousands of acres of magnificent lands, at present
owned in huge tracts, are still available for purchase and
division into small farms. These would furnish homes
for families that might be brought from Italy and the
Canary Islands, greatly to the profit of the Republic it-
self as well as to the immigrants. People of this class
are especially desired in Oriente, and every effort is being
made by the Government to encourage their immigration,
since energy, combined with a fair degree of intelligence,
on the rich lands of this section of Cuba, can result only
in success.

The mineral wealth of Oriente is undoubtedly greater
than that of any of the other provinces. Although both
iron and copper have been mined here for many years,
the mineral zones of the Island have never been fully
exploited, or even intelligently prospected, by men fa-
miliar with the mining industry. Copper was discov-
ered by the early Spanish conquerors and mined at El
Cobre, in the early years of the 16th century. The ore
deposits of this mine have never been exhausted, and are
still worked with profit. The same mineral has been
discovered in other sections of the province, but owing
to lack of transportation facilities, but little effort has
been made towards mining it. The Spanish Iron Com-
pany, for more than a half century, has been taking

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 97

iron ore from the sides of the mountains on the coast,
just east of the city of Santiago de Cuba, and shipping
it from the port of Daquiri.

These mines are in the form of terraces, that are cut
into the sides of the mountains, so that the ore can be
easily withdrawn and shipped to the United States for
smelting purposes. These properties have recently
changed hands, and with the investment of greater capi-
tal will soon be put into a still higher state of produc-
tion.

Perhaps the most profitable iron mines in the Republic
are those owned by the Bethlehem Steel Company, in the
Valley of the Mayari, some eighteen or twenty miles back
from the coast. The mineral here is easily removed
from the surface, and sent by gravity dowTi to the large
reducing mills on the shore of the Bay, where most of
the waste material is washed out with water. The iron
ore of Oriente is of a very high grade and is impregnated
with a sufficient amount of nickel to add greatly to its
value.

The recent demand for chrome, brought about by the
enormous increase in the consumption of steel in the
United States, brought the chrome districts of the world,
including those of Cuba, into considerable prominence.
The great shortage of tonnage, too, made it inconvenient
to bring chrome from Brazil. Recent investigations
made in Cuba, however, demonstrated the fact that this
Province alone, with the investment of a few hundred
thousand dollars in road building, can supply the mills
of the United States with all the chrome and manganese
needed for the development of the steel industries. Sev-
eral manganese mines are being worked at the present
time, most of them on the northern slope of the Sierra
Maestra, whence the ore is conveyed by rail to Santiago
de Cuba and shipped to Atlantic ports, where the demand
is greatest.

The development of the mining industry in Oriente has
hardly begun, but with the enormous amount of iron and

98 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

copper that will be needed for building purposes through-
out the world in the near future, there is every reason to
believe that this province will have an opportunity to open
up and to work many of her mines, with very satisfactory
returns on the capital invested.

CHAPTER X
THE ISLE OF PINES

Although from the early days of Spanish conquest
the Isle of Pines was considered by Spain as an integral
part of Cuba, as are Cayo Romano and all other adja-
cent islands, in the treaty of Paris that concluded the
controversy in regard to Spain's possessions in the West
Indies the Isle of Pines was referred to as a locality dis-
tinct in itself, and as possibly not coming within the
jurisdiction of Cuban territory.

A rule placed on any mariner's chart of the West In-
dies, connecting in a straight line Cabo Cruz, in the Prov-
ince of Oriente, and Cape San Antonio, the western ex-
tremity of Cuba, includes the Isle of Pines within the
limits of the seismic uplift which formed the Pearl of the
Antilles. More than all, during much of the geological
history of the region across the shallow sandy bed, cov-
ered now with only a few fathoms of water, the Isle of
Pines was connected by land with Cuba.

During the first government of American intervention,
several ambitious citizens of the United States bought
large tracts of territory in the Isle of Pines, whose owners
considered them of so little value that they parted with
them at prices varying from 75^ to $1.25 per acre.
These properties were immediately divided up into small
farms, varying from five to forty acres, and placed on the
market in the United States. With glowing descriptions
of the country they were sold at prices gradually increased
from $15 to $50 and even $75 an acre.

In view of the beautiful printed matter so widely dis-
tributed, and the values which fertile farming lands in
the United States had acquired in recent years, these
prices apparently did not seem exorbitant, especially

99

100 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

to men of means, who during the greater part of their ex-
periences had fought out the struggle of life in the cold
northwest. Many Americans were thus induced to come
and settle in the Isle of Pines, with the hope, if not of
amassing a fortune as pictured in the alluring terms of
the propaganda, at least of securing a competence for
their declining years.

More than all, the Isle of Pines was thoroughly adver-
tised throughout the American Union as belonging to the
United States, whose emblem of Liberty floated as an
indication of ownership never to be lowered. This mat-
ter of ownership was finally brought before the Congress
of the United States and through treaty with the Republic
of Cuba, afterguards confirmed by decision of the Su-
preme Court of the United States, was definitely settled
in favor of the smaller Republic. Cuba, in considera-
tion of the waiving of all American claims on the Isle of
Pines, agreed to cede to the United States coaling stations
at Bahia Honda and Guantanamo. Thus the disputed
territory retained its original position as the southern half
of the judicial district of the Province of Havana.

The Island contains approximately 1200 square miles,
a third or more of which is occupied by a large swamp
bounded on the north by a depression running east and
west across the Island, and extending to its southern
shore on the Caribbean. The soil as a rule is sandy and
poor, lacking nearly all the essential elements of plant
food, and hence, for successful agriculture, needs large
quantities of fertilizer.

The natural drainage of the Island is good, and the
climatic conditions are almost identical with those of
Cuba. Aside from poverty of soil, that which has most
obstructed its prosperity is its geographical position, lying
as it does some fifty miles from the mainland, within the
curve formed by the concave littoral of the southern shore,
from which it is separated by shallow seas and sand
bars. The only harbor with sufficient depth for ocean
going steamers is the open roadstead of La Ensenada de

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 101

Siguanea, which furnishes little or no protection from
heavy western winds. Vessels plying between the Isle of
Pines and the United States are compelled to go several
hundred miles out of their way in rounding the western
extremity of Cuba.

All products raised in the Isle of Pines at the present
time are shipped on light draft steamers to the landing
of Batabano, whence they are transferred to a branch
of the United Railways of Havana and carried across
Cuba to the wharves of the capital for export. This loss
of time and breaking of bulk has been, of course, disad-
vantageous to the fruit and vegetable growers of the Isle
of Pines. Nevertheless large shipments, especially of
grape fruit, have been made, and during those seasons
in which Florida has suffered from frost, the returns to
the grower have been very satisfactory.

Unfortunately, too, this interesting outpost of the' Re-
public of Cuba lies directly within the path of the cy-
clones which during the months of September and Octo-
ber form in the Lesser Antilles to the southwest, and
travelling northwesterly rake the Caimeros, the Isle of
Pines and the extreme western end of Cuba. These great
whirling storms usually pass through the straits between
Cape San Antonio and Yucatan, following the curve of
the western Gulf States until exhausted in the forests of
northern Florida and Georgia. The cyclone of October,
1917, destroyed all the fruit of the Isle of Pines and prac-
tically ruined the citrus groves, greatly discouraging the
people who had devoted so many years of time and toil
to their care and development.

In spite of these disadvantages, however, the greater
part of the Americans who have made their homes in the
Isle of Pines, with genuine Yankee grit, refuse to lose
courage, and have started all over again to restore those
sections that were temporarily devastated. The Isle of
Pines is not an attractive place for the man of small
means, since considerable capital is absolutely necessary
for successful agriculture in that section. Nevertheless,

102 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

there is every reason to believe that with time, and intel-
ligently directed effort, the Island may eventually become
a really valuable asset to the Republic.

There seems to be no reason why the great deposits of
muck from the swamps which form the southern part of
the Island, lying also along the coast of the mainland in
many places, might not be transferred to those soils of
the Isle of Pines lacking in humus, and thus in time build
a foundation of sufficient fertility to produce almost any
crop desired.

In the northern half of the Isle of Pines are several
low mountains, or ridges and hills, especially on either
side of Nueva Gerona, which are composed largely of
crystalline marble known as the Gerona marble. It is
probable also that this same material forms part of the
Sierra Pequena, or Little Ridge, located a few miles east,
as well as that of the Sierra de Canada seen in the
distance.

This marble is thoroughly crystalline, retaining little
or no trace of organism that it may originally have held.
The greater part of it is rather coarse, although there are
some beds of fine white statuary marble. The color
varies from pure white to dark grey, with strongly marked
banding in places. These rocks probably belong to the
Paleozoic age, although the crystalline character of the
material renders the period of their origin somewhat
doubtful. In some beds the impurities of the original
limestone have recrystallized and formed silicate miner-
als, chiefly fibrous hornblende. This deposit of marble
has been estimated to be not less than 2,000 feet in
thickness.

The drinking water of the Isle of Pines is abundant,
and like that of nearly all other parts of Cuba is of ex-
cellent quality. Several mineral springs exist which have
a local reputation for medicinal properties. Many beau-
tiful homes, and miles of splendid driveways, have been
built by the property owners of the Isle of Pines, who
have a natural pride in its beauty and development.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 103

To those pioneers from the United States who have
done so much towards the regeneration and building up
of this section, that has always been agriculturally de-
spised, or at least ignored by the natives, the Government
of Cuba feels greatly indebted, and it realizes fully that
only through immigration of this kind will this excellent
work be continued. Agricultural fairs, to which the
Government of Cuba contributes a generous amount for
prizes, are held each year in the Island, and social life
among the residents, enlivened as it is by visitors from
the north during the winter season, is said to be charming.

The principal cities are Nueva Gerona and Santa Fe,
while numberless small colonies are found every few
miles along the highways that have been built within the
last ten years. The Isle of Pines has an attractive future
and many of the rosy dreams of the early American
pioneers, with time, patience and capital, will undoubt-
edly be realized.

CHAPTER XI
MINES AND MINING

After a lapse of more than four centuries, there are
grounds for believing that the dreams of the early Spanish
conquerors, who overran Cuba shortly after its discovery
by Columbus, may be realized, though not exactly as they
expected. Gold may never be found in paying quanti-
ties, yet the mineral wealth of the Island may exceed in
value its present agricultural output, which amounts an-
nually to hundreds of millions of dollars. The follow-
ers of Columbus as a rule cared little for the more quiet
pursuits of agriculture, but were obsessed with a craving
for the precious metals, and during the first half of the
16th century, with the aid of the Indians, mined and
shipped a sufficient amount of gold to encourage greatly
the rulers of Spain, who were quite as persistent in their
craze for the yellow metal as were the pioneers of the New
World.

Narvaez, Velasquez's most active lieutenant, at the
head of 150 men in 1512, marched from Oriente west-
ward in a wild search for gold. Samples of this metal
were found in various places and sent back to Velasquez,
who forwarded them to King Ferdinand. The seven
cities founded within the next two years were said to
have been selected, not owing to the fertility of their
soil or on account of advantageous locations, but solely
with reference to their proximity to gold deposits.

In spite of these early discoveries, however, the amount
of gold found in Cuba, although encouraging at the time,
has never approached the value of other metals far more
common and found in almost unlimited quantities. The
district that first seems to have yielded a fair amount of
gold was along the shores of the Arimao River, where the
Cubenos panned a few hundred dollars in nuggets from

104

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 105

the bed of the stream, and this determined the location of
the city of Trinidad in 1514.

The first and largest shipment of gold from the Island
of Cuba, amounting to $12,437, was forwarded to Spain
in the summer of 1515, and was converted into coin of the
realm by the King. Since the royal share was one-fifth
of all produced, it would seem that the total yield during
the first four years in Cuba amounted to $62,000.

The large quantities of gold found in Mexico by Cor-
tez, some ten years later, so greatly excited the Spanish
conquerors in their quest for this metal, that gold mining
in Cuba gradually became an abandoned industry, and
by 1535 had practically ceased. Since that time there
have been no discoveries that would seem to justify fur-
ther search.

Some time during the year 1529, copper was discovered
on the crest of a hill known as Cardenillo, about ten miles
west of Santiago de Cuba. Mines in this vicinity had
apparently been previously worked by the Cubeno In-
dians, who did not enlighten the Spaniards in regard to
their existence. The value of the find was not recognized
until a certain bell-maker, returning as a passenger from
Mexico, visited the mines and analyzed samples of the
ore. As a result of his report the people of Santiago soon
became aroused over the prospective value of the find
and petitioned the crown for experts and facilities with
which to develop the mine.

Dr. Ledoux, the famous French metallurgist, carefully
analyzed the ore from these mines, and as a result reached
the conclusion that the natives of Cuba, although appar-
ently making no use of the copper themselves, had traf-
ficked with the Indians of Florida, since in the many
assays made of the copper relics of those tribes, it was
found that the same percentage of silver and gold were
contained in them as was found in the ore of the Cuban
deposits. No other copper ores known have percentages
of silver and gold so closely identical to those of "El
Cobre."

106 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Little was done, however, toward the development of
the Santiago mines until 1540, when the Spanish crown
found itself short of material with which to make castings
for its artillery and ordered an investigation of the Cuban
copper deposits. In April of 1540, a German returning
from a Flemish settlement in Venezluela visited "El
Cobre" and entered into an agreement with the town
council to work the mine. The ore yielded, according to
the records, from 55% to 60% of pure copper, carrying
with it also gold and silver. Samples were again sent
to Spain to be tested by the crown. In 1 5 14 forty negroes
were set to work in the mines, under the direction of
Caspar Lomanes, and smelted some 15,000 pounds.

In 1546 the German referred to above, John Tezel of
Nuremberg, returned from Germany, where he had car-
ried samples of ore from the "El Cobre" and reported it
"medium rich in quality and very plentiful in quantity."
Tezel spent the remainder of his life, 20 years, in exploit-
ing the copper of that section.

Up to 1545 Juan Lobera had shipped 9,000 pounds
of Cuban copper to Spain. In the spring of 1547 still
further shipments that had arrived in Seville and were
ordered cast into artillery to be placed in the first fort in
Cuba, La Fuerza, for the protection of the City of Ha-
vana. Three cannon were cast, of which one, a falconet,
burst in the making, and was perhaps responsible for the
report that Cuban copper was of "an intractable quality."

Don Gabriel Montalvo, appointed Governor of Cuba
in 1573, was much impressed by the reports he had heard
of the rich copper deposits near the city of Santiago de
Cuba, and visited some of the old workings, but found
the native Cubenos very reluctant to give him information
in regard to mineral deposits, fearing evidently that they
would be compelled to work in them as miners.

A copper deposit was soon afterwards found near Ha-
vana, and samples of ore were forwarded to Spain with
the request that 50 negroes be detailed to exploit the
mine. The quality of the ore was apparently satisfac-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 107

tory for the casting of cannon, and the king ordered that
it be used for ballast in ships returning from Havana, in
order to furnish material for the Royal Spanish Navy.

In 1580, some mining was done, but the find soon
proved to be a pocket and not a true vein, and the cost of
transportation to Havana was declared prohibitive, in
spite of the fact that it showed a "fifth part good copper."
Other copper mines were afterwards reported in the neigh-
borhood of Bayamo, near the southeastern center of the
Province of Oriente.

In May, 1587, although comparatively little copper
had been taken from "El Cob re" mine, due largely to lack
of food crops in the vicinity with which to supply the
slaves, the Governor reported that "There is so much
metal, and the mines are so numerous that they could
supply the world with copper, and only lately there is
news of a new mine of even better metal than the rest."

Effective work in these mines began in 1599, The
much needed protection from the incursion of pirates and
privateers, that had long preyed on Spain's possessions
in the West Indies, revived industries of all kinds in
Cuba, especially copper mining and ship-building.
Juan de Texeda, who had been commissioned by the
King to go to Havana and do what he could towards pro-
tecting the rich shipments of gold that were being sent
from Mexico to Spain against the attacks of the English
Admiral, Drake, sampled Cuban copper and pronounced
it excellent. On the site of the present Maestranza Build-
ing, now devoted to the Department of Public Works and
the Public Library, Texeda soon established a foundry,
where he "cast the copper into both cannon and kettles."

The mining of copper with profit depends on the price
of the metal in the market and on the cost of extracting
and transporting the ore to the smelter. This, of course,
is true with all metals, hence it frequently happens that
mines containing abundant ore are not worked, owing to
the fact that the cost of production, when taken into
consideration with the market price, eliminates the possi-

108 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

bility of profit. During the past century the mines of
"El Cobre" and vicinity, the extent of whose deposits
seem to be almost unlimited, have been worked at such
times and to such an extent as the market price of the ore
would seem to justify.

Indications, such as boulders that through seismic dis-
turbances or erosion seem to have rolled down from their
original beds, and occasional outcroppings of copper-
bearing ore, are found in every Province of the Island,
although up to 1790 but few explorations worthy of men-
tion were made outside of the Province of Oriente. The
demands for metals of all kinds, especially chrome, man-
ganese and copper, have resulted in more or less desultory
prospecting since 1915, which has resulted in finding out-
croppings of copper scattered throughout the mountains
of Pinar del Rio. Claims have been located near Man-
tua, Vinales, Las Acostas, Santa Lucia, Pinar del Rio,
and at various places between La Esperenza and Bahia
Honda along the north coast.

Reports of copper or "claims," resulting from traces
found, have been made also in the Isle of Pines and at
Minas, only a short distance east of the city of Havana,
in that province. Copper claims have been registered
near Pueblo Nuevo, too, in the Province of Matanzas.
In the province of Santa Clara, claims have been recorded
in the districts of Cienfuegos, Trinidad and Sancti Spiri-
tus. Several very promising copper mines have been
opened up in this province that will undoubtedly yield a
profit if worked under intelligent management and with
the judicious employment of capital. In the Province
of Camaguey, copper has been discovered near Minas,
and as several different places along the line of the Sierra
de Cubitas. In Oriente, copper claims have been regis-
tered near Holguin and Bayamo, while "El Cobre," of
course, has been famous for its yield of ore since the days
of the Spanish conquerors.

The excessive demand for copper resulting from the
War in Europe, together with the high prices offered for

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 109

that metal, recalled the fact that many years ago Spanish
engineers and prospectors, among the hills of Pinar del
Rio, frequently found small outcroppings of copper ore,
and in some cases sank shafts for short distances, where
the ore had been removed and carried to the coast on mule
back. The low price of copper at that time, however, and
the scarcity of labor following the abolition of slavery at
the conclusion of the Ten Years' War, discouraged serious
work on the part of the old timers, traces of whose efforts
still remain at various points along the northern slope of
the Organos Mountains,

The first record we have of the exploration of the min-
eral zone in which the famous copper mine of this Prov-
ince was discovered, dates back to 1790, but it resulted
in no definite or profitable work. An English company
of which General Narciso Lopez was president, during
the early part of the 19th century, made some explorations
in the district of El Brujo and Cacarajicara, located in
the mountains back of Bahia Honda; but the defeat of
Lopez's revolutionary forces, and his subsequent execu-
tion in 1851, put an end to the effort.

Shortly after the Spanish American War, Col. John
Jacob Astor, the American millionaire, became interested
in the copper deposits of Pinar del Rio, which resulted in
the establishment of several claims, none of which, how-
ever, were developed. Shortly after this a Mr. Argudin
located claims known as Regelia and Jesus Sacramento,
the former only two kilometers from that of the mine
Matahambre. A small amount of preliminary work was
done, but apparently proved unpromising.

In 1912 Alfredo Porta, a well-known citizen and poli-
tician of Pinar del Rio, interested Mr. Luciano Diaz, a
former Secretary of the Treasury and a man of some
means, in a claim which he had denounced some eight
kilometers back from La Esperanza, on the north coast
of the province. Messrs. Porta and Diaz secured the
services of an experienced mining engineer, Mr. Morse,
who visited the district, made a careful survey of the

no THE HISTORY OF CUBA

claim, and informed the owners that in his estimate
Matahambre was worthy of the investment of any
amount of capital, since the grade of the ore, and the
amount exposed through Mr. Morse's preliminary work,
w^as sufficient to place it in the list of paying mineral
properties.

Work began at Matahambre in the early part of 1913
under the technical direction of C. L. Constant, of New
York. During the first year a number of galleries, only a
little below the surface, were thrown out in different di-
rections. Paying ore found in these galleries was very
promising. The first two carloads of ore, shipped by rail
from the City of Pinar del Rio to Havana, sold for a
sufficient amount of money to pay for all of the prelimi-
nary work that had been done. In 1915, a shaft was
sunk to a depth of 100 feet and afterwards carried down
to the 400-foot level, where it about reached the level of
the sea. Later this shaft was sent down 150 feet further.
The ore taken out at the 400-foot level proved to be the
highest grade of all found, although it is said that no ore
was encountered at any depth that was not of sufficient
value more than to pay for the cost of mining. In fact
the percentage of gold and silver in many cases has paid
for the expense of mining the copper. In 1918, six
shafts, known as 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, were in operation,
and all yielding excellent ore. There are some 15 dif-
ferent varieties of copper ore taken from Matahambre.

The ore for some time was conveyed to the docks at
Santa Lucia with mule teams and motor trucks. These
were eventually replaced by wire cables and the ore was
sent to the coast by gravity, greatly decreasing the cost of
transportation. Splendid wharves and receiving sheds,
dumps, etc., have been built at Santa Lucia, whence the
ore is lightered out to deep water anchorage. Fully 300
tons a day are now being removed and conveyed to the
landing. An average of 8,000 tons a month is shipped
in steamers that can take aboard 800 tons a day. This
mineral is consigned to the United States Metal Refining

THE HISTORY OF CUBA HI

Company. In 1916, thirty-three steamers carried 75,000
tons of mineral to this Company.

Quite a little city has sprung up around the mine, and
2,000 men are given employment by the Company.
Comfortable quarters have been erected for the officials,
employees and other members of the force. A large
amount of ore was mined in 1918 and held for the com-
pletion of a new concentration plant, which will enable
the Company to utilize ore which under war freight rates
would not have been profitable to export. Following
the demise of Sr. Luciano Diaz, his son Antonio Diaz
assumed control and is carrying on the work of the pro-
posed improvements.

At the time of the closing of the Spanish regime in
Cuba, fourteen mineral claims had been made in the
Province of Pinar del Rio. Between 1909 and 1911,
212 were denounced, including 48 of the Company
headed by Mr. Astor. From 1911 to 1918, 2970 claims
were registered in the Buread of Mines. A large pro-
portion of the interest in copper mining in Pinar del
Rio was undoubtedly the result of the wonderful wealth
that has come from Matahambre, the ore from which
mined in 1916 was valued at $5,500,000.

Not until the early part of the 19th century did the
presence of those enormous deposits of iron ore found
throughout the mountain districts of Oriente present
themselves to the outside world as a profitable commer-
cial proposition.

Nearly all of the great iron deposits of Oriente lie
within a few feet of the surface; and on the southern
slopes of the Sierra Maestra it is necessary only to scrape
the dirt from the side of the hills, take out the ore and
send it down to the sea coast by gravity. Similar condi-
tions exist at the Mayari mines on the north coast, just
back of Nipe Bay, where the deposits need nothing but
washing with cold water. The soil being thus removed
at little cost, the iron is ready for shipment to the smelters
of the United States.

112 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

In spite of the fact that this ore was found to be equal
to the best Swedish, and that nature in her own labora-
tories had supplied the requisite amount of nickel and
manganese, making these mines of Oriente perhaps the
most valuable in the world, but little attention has been
paid to this marvellously rich source of minerals, beyond
those few who are drawing dividends from the industry.
The recent purchase of the Spanish American Iron Com-
pany's holdings at Daiquiri for $32,000,000, however,
has called the attention of mining interests in the United
States to the fact that millions of tons of untouched ore
still lie in the eastern provinces of Cuba. Twenty-five
percent of the area of Oriente contains w^onderful de-
posits of ore, mostly iron, and awaits only the necessary
capital to place it on the markets of the world.

This nickeliferous iron ore, in which the presence of
nickel, so essential to the making of steel, has been con-
tributed by nature in just the right proportions, is found
in large quantities also in the provinces of Camaguey and
Pinar del Rio. The extent of these mineral deposits is
not yet known, but millions of tons are in sight, awaiting
only cheap transportation to bring them into the markets
of the world, where the grade and quality of the ore will
undoubtedly command satisfactory prices.

Up to the present time nearly all of the iron ore ex-
ported from Cuba comes from the large deposits of
Oriente. The iron on the south coast is loaded into the
steamers from the wharves at Daiquiri and Juraguay.
That on the north coast, brought down from the Mayari
mines, is shipped from the harbor of Nuevitas.

Below are given the tons of copper and iron shipped
from Cuba during the year from July, 1917, to June,
1918:

IRON COPPER
tons tons

July to December, 1917 272,403 41,809

January to June, 1918 218,301 52,569

Total 490,704 94,378

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 113

On the south side of the Sierra de Cubitas, in the Prov-
ince of Camaguey, a distinctly marked zone of this excel-
lent iron ore runs parallel to the main chain of the Cubitas
for many miles. Grass covered hills, rising more or less
abruptly from the surface, seem to be composed of solid
masses of iron ore. So great is the value of this mineral
zone that the North Shore Road of Cuba, now under
construction and practically completed from its eastern
deep water terminus on Nuevitas Harbor to the Maximo
River just east of the Sierra de Cubitas, was primarily
intended as a means of exploiting and conveying the ore
from this zone to the sea coast.

In the western portion of the Organ Mountains of
Pinar del Rio, other deposits of nickeliferous iron have
been denounced and registered, although the cost of build-
ing a railroad to deep water on the north coast up to the
present prevented the development of the mines, located
about 20 miles southeast of Arroyo de Mantua.

With the enormous amount of constructive work that
will undoubtedly follow the great European War, in
which iron and steel will play such an important part,
there is every reason to believe that capital will be forth-
coming with which to build the necessary roads and to
develop the nickel bearing iron ores of Cuba.

Structural steel, today and in the future, will probably
play a greater part in the world's progress and develop-
ment than any other one of the products of nature. The
demand for steel, of course, was greatly accentuated by the
European conflict, without w^hich modern warfare would
be practically impossible. The splendid steel turned
out in our mills of today would be impossible of manu-
facture without the addition of a certain percentage of
either manganese or chrome. The alloys of these two
metals with iron gives steel its elasticity, hardness and
real value.

Manganese ores are found in California, Colorado,
Arkansas, Georgia, Michigan, New Jersey and Virginia,
but nowhere within the limits of the United States have

114 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

the United States have the deposits of manganese proved
to be sufficiently extensive to supply the domestic require-
ments of the country, even in normal times. The total
output of manganese in the United States in 1901 was
less than 12,000 tons. Southern Russia contains very
large deposits of the metal, but up to 1919, 70% to 80%
of the manganese consumed in the United States had been
brought from the interior of Southern Brazil.

The immediate and imperative demand for both man-
ganese and chrome, impelled the Government at Wash-
ington to seek other sources, closer by, in order to save
the time consumed in securing shipments from Brazil.

Small amounts of manganese had been secured from
Cuba during the ten years previous to the War, but the
extent of these deposits remained unknown until, in the
spring of 1918, the United States Geological Survey and
Bureau of Mines sent two expert engineers, Messrs. Al-
bert Burch, consulting engineer of the Bureau of Mines,
and Ernest F. Burchard, geologist of the United States
Geological Survey, to Cuba in order to ascertain the qual-
ity and quantity of manganese and chrome that might be
furnished by that Republic.

The party reached Havana in the latter part of Febru-
ary, and were there joined by Sr. E. I. Montoulieu, a
Cuban mining engineer, detailed by the Treasury De-
partment to act as an escort and associate throughout re-
search work in the Island. During the two months of
their stay these gentlemen made a rapid survey of the
more important chrome and manganese zones, the report
of which was made to the United States Government in
September of 1918.

The chrome deposits, which up to the time of the visit
of these engineers had attracted attention in Cuba, are all
located within distances varying from ten to twenty-five
miles from the north coast of the Island. Some twelve
groups were examined which displayed considerable
diversity in quality, size and accessibility.

Manganese claims have been registered near Mantua

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 115

and Vinales, in the Province of Pinar del Rio, but time
did not permit an extended study of those deposits.
Valuable manganese deposits of known value are found
also in the districts of Cienfuegos and Trinidad in the
Province of Santa Clara. By far the largest deposits of
this ore, and the only ones that are being extensively
worked, are located in the Province of Oriente.

The most westerly deposit of chrome visited was found
in the eastern part of Havana province, and two others
were located, one near Coliser, in the Province of Matan-
zas, another near Canasi, and a third near the automobile
drive about half way between the City of Matanzas and
Cardenas. In the province of Camaguey, only a few
miles north of the city, valuable deposits of chrome were
found quite accessible to the railroad for shipment.
Other chrome deposits were found in Oriente; one near
Holguin, another south of Nipe Bay, and three groups in
the mountains not far from the coast -between Punta
Corda and Baracoa.

All of the chrome deposits examined by these engineers
were found in serpentinized basic rocks. The ore lies
in lenticular and tabular masses, ranging in thickness
from one to more than fifty feet. The ore is generally
fine grained to medium coarse, and runs from spotted
material, consisting of black grains of chromite ranging
in diameter from Vso to Vi of an inch, embedded in light
green serpentine, to a solid black material containing little
or no visible serpentine.

Most of the masses of ore are highly inclined and cer-
tain of them are exposed in ravines, on steep hillsides and
in mountainous or hilly regions. The deposits west of
Nipe Bay are in areas of moderate relief, and those near
Camaguey are in an area of very low relief. The de-
posits in the eastern part of Oriente, which are the largest
visited, are in a mountainous country and very difficult
of access.

In Havana Province small pockets of chrome ore have
been found about two miles south of Canasi, ten miles

116 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

from the railroad. A little mining has been done and
about 600 tons of ore shipped.

In Matanzas Province small deposits of chrome were
visited on the "Jack" claim, seven miles northwest of the
railroad station on Mocha, and on the Anna Maria claim
ten miles west of Cardenas. The latter is only two miles
from the railroad but no ore had been shipped from it.
Considerable development work has been done on the
"Jack" claim and about 450 tons of ore were on hand
in February of 1918.

Another promising claim was located in a group of
several serpentine hills that rise from the comparatively
level surface about a mile north of kilometer 36, on the
automobile drive between Cardenas and Matanzas. The
outcropping chrome and loose lumps of float, found on
the surface, were of high grade, exceeding probably 50%.

Since the visit of the American engineers another very
promising chromite claim has been located some four
kilometers from the railroad, near Coliseo, in the Prov-
ince of Matanzas. The owners of this claim announce
an unlimited quantity of good grade ore, and were ship-
ping in the winter of 1918 and 1919 two carloads of ore
per day to the United States by rail, using the Havana and
Key West Ferry. Messrs. Burch and Burchard state in
their report that the geological conditions in the areas
referred to above warrant further exploration.

The deposits of chrome examined in Camaguey con-
sist of three groups, which lie along a narrow zone, begin-
ning nine miles north of the City of Camaguey and ex-
tending southeast to a point only two miles from Alta
Gracia, on the Nuevitas Railroad. A level plain, cov-
ered with a thin mantle of clay and limonite gravel, ex-
tends from the City of Camaguey northward -until its
junction with the hills of the Sierra de Cubitas, rendering
the country easily accessible by wagon road. Float ore
is found in this zone, and broken ore caps some ten or
twelve small hills that rise from five to fifty feet above
the surrounding surface. In this zone there are also

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 117

fifteen or more other outcroppings of chromite, most of
them obscured by broken ore and rock debris. Pros-
pecting has been done here to obtain samples of ore for
analysis, but it has not shown either the nature or the
extent of the deposits. On the surface, however, there is
a considerable quantity of ore in the form of broken rocks
or coarse float, probably 20,000 tons.

Ten samples of ore from the deposits near Camaguey
contain from 27% to 36% of chromic oxide. Only two
produced less than 30% while a few ran above 35%.
This is a low grade ore but is suitable for certain pur-
poses. If it should require concentration, sufficient
water is available in small streams within a mile of the
deposit.

Twenty miles north of Camaguey, near the eastern end
of the Cubitas iron ore beds, are several other deposits
of chrome that were examined by A. C. Spencer of the
United States Geological Survey in 1907. All of these
denoted noteworthy quantities of chrome float, apparently
of high grade, and the occurrence of tabular bodies of
chrome from one to five feet in width. On one claim
boulders of chrome ore are distributed over a belt of some
1 700 feet, and on another, fragments of ore are found in
an area 150 by 250 feet. On still another claim, five
deposits lie within an area measuring 1200 by 3000 feet.
One of these seems to be continuous for something over
900 feet.

Both chrome and manganese are scattered throughout
various sections of Oriente and the largest deposits of
these minerals as well as those of iron are located in this
Province. Small deposits of chrome are located some
seven miles northeast of Holguin, on the slopes of a low
ridge of serpentine that lies between two higher ridges of
steeply inclined limestone, about a half mile distant from
each other. One pocket had yielded about 150 tons of
ore, which with 25 tons of float was ready for shipment
in March, 1918. Analysis of samples showed an aver-
age of 34% of chromic oxide. The maximum content

118 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

of chromium in pure chromite is 46.66% and the content
of chromic oxide is 68%. Late in July of that year the
company's consulting engineer reported that a large body
of 40% ore had been developed, and that in all about
500 tons were ready for shipment.

One of the larger deposits of chrome that gives promise
of a considerable output is located on the south slope of
the Sierra de Nipe, about seven miles southeast of Wood-
fred, the headquarters of the Spanish American Iron
Company's Mayari mines. The upper part of the ore
body crops out of a steep hillside about 300 feet above
a mountain stream, flowing into a small tributary of the
Mayari River, and seems to be from ten to thirty feet in
thickness. Where it does not crop out, it lies from 30 to
50 feet below the surface. The ore varies in quality, the
better grade carrying as high as 48% of chromic oxide,
with 7% to 15% of silica, and 7% to 10% of iron.
The deposit was estimated to contain about 50,000 tons
of chrome ore, 25,000 tons of which would carry more
than 40% of chromic oxide and the remaining 25,000
tons between 34% and 40%.

The Cayojuan group of chrome ore claims are located
on both sides of a small river emptying into Moa Bay,
and lie at an altitude of about 750 feet above the sea
level. An outcrop that extends around the hill for about
300 fe'et, and covers some 6,400 square feet, has been
prospected. Samples on analysis gave an average of
38.1% chromic oxide.

The Narciso claim, which nearly surrounds the above
group, includes an ore body that crops out on a steep hill-
side, about 500 feet above the river, A sample of ore
from this outcrop showed an analysis of 34.8% of
chromic oxide.

The Cromita claims, one the left side of the river,
contain three known ore bodies, and hundreds of tons of
boulder float ore, in an arroyo or gulch. The ore bodies
are exposed on the side of a bluff at a height of 150 to
300 feet above the river. The most northerly ore body

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 119

shows a face 20 feet wide and 15 feet high. The middle
body includes an outcrop 75 feet long and 50 feet high
and has been penetrated by cutting a tunnel. Geological
conditions would indicate that these bodies are connected
within the hill. Samples of these ores on analysis varied
from 26% to 40.5% of chromic oxide.

The deposits of the Cayojuan group contain probably
about 22,500 tons of available chrome ore, but may run
as high as 60,000 tons. These estimates include 2,000
tons of float ore in the Cayojuan River and the tributary
arroyo. The group of deposits is about eight miles by
mule trail from an old wharf at Punta Gorda, to which a
road will have to be built along the valley of the Cayo-
juan, a narrow gorge bordered in many places by steep
cliffs. A light tramway for mule cars, or a narrow gauge
steam railway, will probably be the most economical way
of removing the ore.

The Potosi chrome claim is located on Saltadero
Creek four miles above its mouth. This is a tributary
of the Yamaniguey River. The ore body is a steeply
dipping lens that reaches a depth of more than 100 feet
and at one place has a thickness of 250 feet with a length
along the strike, of 45 feet. The upper edge crops out
about 325 feet above the creek bed, and about 600 feet
above sea level. The ore is medium to coarse grained.
Some of the material in the drifts is spotted but most of
the outcropping and float ore is black and of good ap-
pearance. According to the analysis that accompanied
the report of G. W. Maynard, the representative ore con-
tains 35% to 41 % chromic oxide. This deposit contains
from 10,000 to 20,000 tons and the work of getting the
ore to the coast involves rather a difficult problem in
transportation.

A small body of chrome ore occurs on the Constancia
claim, three-quarters of a mile south of Navas Bay, and
about 100 feet above the sea level. The ore body ap-
pears to extend about 50 feet along the face of a gently
sloping hill. It is not of a uniform quality, being

120 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

largely a spotted ore; that is chromite mixed with ser-
pentine ganue. About six feet of better ore, however,
is exposed in a cut some 25 feet in length. This con-
tains 39.4% chromic oxide. Water for concentration is
available near by in the Navas River, and a road could
easily be built to the bay, but this is not deep enough for
steamers, so it would have to be lightered four miles
north to Taco Bay, or ten miles southeast to Baracoa.
Another body containing about 10,000 tons of chrome ore
of low-grade lies in the mountain eight miles south of
Navas Bay.

The reserves of marketable chrome ore that have been
prospected in Cuba up to the summer of 1918, range from
92,500 long tons to 170,000. The largest known de-
posits of chrome ore, or at least the largest of those visited
by the engineers Burch and Burchard in the spring of
1918, are those of the Caledonia, and the Cayojuan and
the Potosi claims, near the northeast coast of Oriente
Province, in a region of rather difficult access. Accord-
ing to indications, they will probably yield 130,000 tons
of ore, most of which can be brought to the present com-
mercial grade by simple concentration.

The next largest group of chrome ore deposits is near
Camaguey. They are very easy of access, but are of a
lower grade than those of Oriente. They appear to con-
tain a maximum of about 40,000 tons of ore that can be
gathered by hand from the surface.

Near Holguin, Cardenas and Matanzas, are small
stocks of ore ready for shipment, perhaps 1,000 tons.
The most productive chrome mine operating in the fall
of 1918 seemed to be that of the "Britannia Company,"
located about twelve miles southwest of Cardenas and
about 80 miles from Havana. Two carloads a day were
being shipped by rail from Coliseo to Havana, and thence
by ferry to Key West and northern smelters.

The manganese ores of Cuba occur principally in
sedimentary rocks such as limestone, sandstone and shale,
that in places have become metamorphosed, but in the

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 121

most heavily mineralized zones are associated with masses
of silicious rocks, locally temed "jasper" and "byate."
In one locality the manganese and its silicious associates
were found in igneous rocks, such as Latite-porphyry
and Latite. The sedimentary rocks with which man-
ganese deposits are usually associated are in some places
nearly horizontal, but generally show dips ranging from
a few degrees to forty-five or more. The inclined beds
usually represent portions of local folds. Some faulting
is shown in the vicinity of various manganese deposits
and may have influenced the localization of the deposits.

Manganese ore is found in Oriente, Santa Clara and
Pinar del Rio provinces, but only in Oriente has it been
found in large commercial quantities. In Oriente the
deposits are in three areas, one north and northeast of
Santiago de Cuba, another south of Bayamo and Baire,
and the third on the Caribbean coast between Torquino
Peak and Portillo. The first two include the most exten-
sive deposits on the Island. In Santa Clara ore has been
found near the Caribbean coast west of Trinidad, and in
Pinar del Rio Province manganese ore occurs north of
the city of Pinar del Rio and farther west near Mendoza.

The deposits of the northeast coast and those south of
Bayamo, distant from each other approximately 100
miles, show nevertheless an interesting concordance in
altitude. They stand from 500 to 1200 feet above sea
level and nearly all of them are at altitude near 600 and
700 feet, suggesting a relation between the deposition of
the manganese and a certain stage in the physiographic
development of the region. Most of the manganese ore
deposits are above drainage level, on the slopes of hills of
moderate height, the maximum relief in the immediate
vicinity of the deposits seldom exceeding 500 feet.

The deposits of manganese ore examined in Cuba are
rather diverse, but may be grouped into three general
physical types — ^buried deposits, irregular masses asso-
ciated with silicious rock or "jaspar," and deposits in
residual clay. The buried deposits comprise several

122 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

varieties, one of the most common being of poorly con-
solidated beds of sandy chloritic material, cemented, with
manganese oxides, that fill inequalities in the surface of
hard rocks. Other bedded deposits clearly replace lime-
stone, shale conglomerate or other rocks, and tabular
masses of ore are interbedded with strata of nearly hori-
zontal limestone. The ore consists largely of Pyrolusite,
but many deposits contain Psilomelane, Manganite and
Wad, or mixtures of all these materials. The richness
of the deposits varies considerably. Most of the richest
masses are associated with the "jaspar," but masses that
have replaced limestone are also very rich.

The deposits of manganese examined in the Santiago
district comprise the Ponupo Group, the Ysobelita, Bots-
ford, Boston, Pilar, Dolores, Laura, San Andrea, Cauto
or Abundancia, Llave and Gloria Mines, together with
the Caridad and Valle prospects. All of these properties
except the two prospects are producing ore. The Ponupo,
Ysobelita and Boston mines were opened many years ago
and have produced a large quantity of ore. The Ponupo
and Ysobelita are still relatively large producers, though
the grade of ore is not so high as that shipped in the
earlier days. The Ponupo mine is connected with the
Cuba Railroad at La Maya by a branch two miles long,
and a narrow gauge track from Cristo, on the Cuba
Railroad, runs to the Ysobelita mine three miles distant.
Extensions of this line to the Boston and Pilar mines can
be made with little additional outlay. The Dolores and
Laura mines are near the Guantanamo & Western Rail-
road, not far from Sabanilla station, and the Cauto mine
is adjacent to the Cuba Railroad at Manganeso Station.
The other mines are from one to eight miles from the
railroad, to which the ore is hauled mainly by oxcarts.
In the rainy season these roads are impassable, and even
in the dry season they include many difficult places, so
that the quantity of the output is much less than could be
mined under different circumstances.

The ore is mined by hand, mostly from open cuts,

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 123

though short drifts and tunnels have been run into lenses
of ore at the Ponopu, Cauto and Laura mines, and a
slope has been driven on a thin tabular mass of ore be-
tween strata of limestone, dipping about 34 degrees, at
the Botsford.

High grade ore may be selected in mining the richer
parts of these deposits, but most of it requires mechanical
treatment, such as long washing and jigging to free it
from clay, sand and other impurities. At one mine the
ore is cleaned by raking over a horizontal screen in a
stream of water. Log washers are in operation at some
mines and under construction at others. At one time a
system of washing, screening and jigging is employed.
They daily production of manganese ore in March, 1918,
from this district, was about 300 tons.

The approximate average composition of the ore now
shipped is as follows :

Manganese 38.885%

Silica 12.135%

Phosphorus 084%

Moisture 11.201%

The greater part of the manganese ore from this dis-
trict contains from 36% to 45% manganese, a few thou-
sand tons running over 45%.

The manganese deposits examined by Messrs. Burch
and Burchard south of Bayamo consist of the Manuel,
Costa group, 18 to 23 miles by wagon road southwest of
Bayamo; the Francisco and Cadiz groups, 15 and 20
miles southeast of the same city; and Guinea, Llego and
Charco Redondo, seven to eight miles southeast of Santa
Rite; and the Adriano and San Antonio mines, 9 to 10
miles south of Bayari. Other deposits, further to the
southeast, are in what is known as the Los Negros dis-
trict. But little mining has been done so far in this dis-
trict. Deposits of milling ore are available and will
undoubtedly be developed later if prices remain favor-
able.

124 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

It was estimated in April, 1918, that the output of
manganese from this district, during 1918, would not
exceed 12,000 tons, half of which would be high-grade
ore carrying from 45% to 55% of manganese. Later
developments, however, indicated a much larger output.

The reserve of manganese ore in this section was esti-
mated at about 50,000 tons, but this does not include the
Los Negros district which lies further southeast, 25 to 35
miles from the railroad. Engineers who have examined
this zone believe that with good transportation facilities
it will yield a large output of high-grade ore from many
small deposits.

Aside from difficult transportation facilities in some
districts, one of the chief obstacles in the way of a large
yield of ore from the mines has resulted from an inabil-
ity to hold a sufficient number of miners at certain mines,
owing to an inadequate supply of foodstuffs. Many
workmen preferred to work in the sugar mills where
good food was more readily obtained and living condi-
tions were easier. Lack of explosives also handicapped
mining in some districts. The building of narrow gauge
railroads in which the Cuban Federal Government will
probably assist will greatly contribute to the successful
or profitable mining of manganese in the Province of
Oriente. The fact that most of the ore is removed during
the dry season, when the Cuba Company's roads are
taxed to the limit in conveying sugar cane to the mills,
also renders transportation by rail rather uncertain.

Despite the handicaps outlined above, operators of
manganese mines are striving to increase their output, and
there is a strong interest taken everywhere in Cuba in
developing manganese prospects. If railway cars and
ships are provided for transporting the ore, food for the
mine laborers, and explosives for blasting, the outlook
for a steadily increasing production is good. The out-
put for 1918 was estimated at between 110,000 and 125,-
000 tons, more than 90% of which runs from 36% to
45% manganese, the remainder being of a higher grade.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 125

The reserves of manganese ore in the mines above re-
ferred to in Oriente Province are estimated at from 700,-
000 to 800,000 tons, 85% of which is located in the dis-
trict northeast of Santiago.

CHAPTER XII
ASPHALT AND PETROLEUM

The presence of bituminous products in Cuba has been
a matter of record since the days of the early Spanish
conquerors. Sebastian Ocampo, that adventurous fol-
lower of Columbus, in the year 1508 dropped into one
of the sheltered harbors of the north coast, not previously
reported, in order to make repairs on some of his battered
caravels. Much to his surprise and delight, while
careening a boat to scrape the bottom some of his men
ran across a stream of soft asphalt or mineral pitch, ooz-
ing from the shore near by. Nothing could have been
more convenient for Ocampo, and according to the early
historians he made a very favorable report on the ad-
vantages of Cuba for ship building. First she had well
protected harbors in plenty, with an abundance of cedar
and sabicu from which to cut planking; there were ma-
jagua, oak and other woods from which to hew the tim-
bers. Tall straight pines grew near the harbor of Nipe
that would do for masts. From the majagua bark and
textile plants, tough fibre could be obtained with which
to make the rigging. Both iron and copper were at hand
for nails and bolts. All that was lacking seemed to be
the material for the sails, and even this could have been
found had he known where to look.

So convenient did this harbor prove to the needs of
Ocampo that he called it Puerto Carenas, by which name
it was known until 1519, when the 50 odd citizens left
by Velasco a few years before on the south coast, where
they had tried to found a city, moved up from the Alman-
dares to Puerto Carenas and straightway changed its
name to the Bay of Havana, by which it has since been

known.

126

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 127

The same little stream of semi-liquid asphalt can to-
day be seen, issuing from the rocky shore along the east
side of the bay. This deposit was mentioned by Oviedo
in 1535, who referred also to other asphalt deposits found
along the north coast of what was then known as Puerto
Principe. These asphalt deposits, so close to the shore,
were undoubtedly utilized by the navigators of the 16th
and following centuries in making repairs to the numer-
ous fleets that were kept busy plying between Spain and
the New World.

Alexander Von Humboldt, who in the year 1800 came
across from Venezuela to Cuba to study the flora, fauna
and natural resources of the Island, mentioned what he
called the petroleum wells of the Guanabacoa Ridge, lo-
cated not far from Havana, at a point once known as the
mineral springs of Santa Rita. Richard Gowling Tay-
lor and Thomas C. Clemson, in a book published in
1837, mentioned "the petroleum wells of Guanabacoa"
which had been known for three centuries and that were
undoubtedly the wells to which Baron Von Humboldt
had previously referred. La Sagra, too, in 1828, de-
scribed petroleum fields located near Havana, and in
1829, Joaquin Navarro described several deposits of
bituminous material in a report which he made to the
"Real Sociedad Patriotica."

The bituminous deposits referred to by Taylor and
Clemson proved to be a solid form of asphalt. It was
afterward used in large quantities as a substitute for
coal. They speak of finding crude petroleum also, filling
the cavities in masses of chalcedony, only a few yards
distant from the asphalt. The place referred to was aft-
erwards ceded to the mining companies of Huatey and
San Carlos, located twelve miles from Havana, where
may still be seen the original wells.

In a report on bituminous products of the Island by
G. C. Moisant, reference is made to a liquid asphalt or
petroleum found in Madruga, a small town southeast of
Havana. This petroleum product, according to recent

128 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

investigations, flows from cavities in the serpentine rocks
found near Madruga and surrounding towns.

An oil claim was registered in 1867 near Las Minas,
18 kilometers east of Havana, as the result of oil indi-
cations in the cavities of rocks that cropped out on the
surface. A well was opened that yielded some oil at a
depth of 61 meters. This was sunk later to 129 meters
but afterwards abandoned. Within the last few years
several wells have been drilled in the vicinity of the old
Santiago claim and have produced a considerable amount
of oil.

The General Inspector of Mines, Pedro Salterain, in
1880 reported the presence of liquid asphalt, or a low
grade of crude petroleum, that flowed from a serpentine
dyke, cropping out on the old Tomasita Plantation near
Banes, on the north coast some twenty miles west of
Havana. The product was used for lighting the estate.
All of the wells of this province are located on lands
designated by geologists as belonging to the cretaceous
period. This is true of those properties where indica-
tions of petroleum are found near Sabanilla de la Palma
and La Guanillas, in the Province of Matanzas.

During a century or more, hydrocarbon gases have is-
sued from the soil in a district east of Itabo, in the Prov-
ince of Matanzas. In 1880, Manuel Cueto had a well
drilled on the Montembo Farm in this district. He
finally discovered at a depth of 95 meters a deposit of
remarkably pure naphtha which yielded about 25 gallons
a day. It was a colorless, transparent, liquid, very in-
flammable, and leaving no perceptible residue after com-
bustion. Cueto afterwards opened another well to a
depth of 248 meters and there discovered a deposit of
naphtha that produced 250 gallons per day. According
to T. Wayland Vaughn of the United States Geological
Service such gases are plentiful in the surrounding hills.

In June, 1893, commercial agents of the United States
Government reported that petroleum had been found near
Cardenas of a grade much better than the crude oils im-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 129

ported from the United States. In November, 1894,
another commercial agent from Washington reported that
asphalt deposits near the city of Cardenas could produce
from a thousand to five thousand tons of this material a
year.

In 1901 Herbert R. Peckham, describing asphalt fields
east and south of Cardenas, mentions the drilling of a
well by Lucas Alvarez, in search of petroleum, which he
found at a depth of 500 feet, and from which he pumped
1000 gallons of petroleum, but this exhausted the supply
of the well. As a result of investigations made by Mr.
Peckham, seepages of crude oil and liquid asphalt of
varying density may be found here over a district measur-
ing about 4,500 square miles.

Near the city of Santa Clara there is a petroleum field
known as the Sandalina, samples of which were analyzed
by H. M. Stokes in 1890, which he reported to be quite
similar to the crude petroleum of Russia. . In the neigh-
borhood of Sagua and Caibarien, in the northern part of
Santa Clara Province, petroleum fields have recently been
discovered, and others in the southern part of the Prov-
ince of Matanzas.

Large deposits of asphalt, of varying grades and densi-
ties, have been found at intervals along the north coast
of the Province of Pinar del Rio. From the harbor of
Mariel a narrow gauge road has been built back to mines
some six miles distant, over which, up to the beginning
of the European War, asphalt was brought to the water-
side and loaded directly into sailing vessels, bound for
the United States and Europe. Other deposits have been
found at La Esperanza and Cayo Jabos, a little further
west along the same coast, and in the estimation of some
well informed engineers this Pinar del Rio coast furnishes
the most promising field for petroleum prospecting of all
in Cuba.

As a result of the petroleum excitement, brought about
by reports of surface indications and of the success of the
Union Oil Company's drillings, many claims have been

130 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

registered for both asphalt and petroleum within recent
years. Up to the last day of December, 1917, 215 claims
were filed in the Bureau of Mines, covering an area of
about 25,000 acres. In the same time 88 claims, scat-
tered throughout the various Provinces, were registered
for oil, comprising a total area of about 40,000 acres.

This scramble for oil lands has resulted in the forma-
tion of some fifty different companies, most of which have
issued large amounts of stock, and many of which will
properly come under the head of "wildcat" adventures.
This, however, has happened in other countries under
similar circumstances; notably in the United States.

In the fall of 1918 some 15 companies were drilling
for oil, most of which yielded very little results. This
was due in some instances to inadequate machinery, and
in others to inefficient workmen, together with absolute
lack of any definite knowledge of the district in which
they were working. In addition to this, nearly all of
the wells drilled have either found oil or stopped at a
depth of 1000 feet. In only a few instances have wells
been sunk to a depth of 3000 feet, and most of these were
in a section where almost nothing was known of the
geology of the country.

In Sabanilla de la Palma, the Cuban Oil and Mining
Corporation drilled to a depth of 1036 feet. On reach-
ing the 120-foot level, they penetrated a layer of asphalt
four feet in thickness, and found petroleum in small
quantities at two other levels. At 1037 feet they met
petroleum of a higher grade, and are planning to sink
the well to a depth of 4000 feet with the idea of finding
still richer deposits.

About two kilometers west of Caimito de Guayabal,
near the western boundary of Havana Province, Shaler
Williams has drilled several wells, one to a depth of
1800 feet, which produced oil and gas, but in small quan-
tities. The gas has furnished him light and power on
his farm for several years.

Since 1914 the Union Oil Company has been success-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 131

fully exploiting the Santiago claim near Bacuranao, some
12 miles east of Havana. During 1917 and 1918, this
company drilled ten wells with varying results. One of
these reached a depth of 700 feet, producing three or four
barrels of excellent petroleum per day, but was afterwards
abandoned. Wells 2 and 3 were abandoned at a depth
of only a few hundred feet on account of striking rock too
difficult to penetrate. Well No. 4, at a depth of 560
feet, produced oil at the rate of 10 to 15 barrels per day.
No. 5 yielded 400 barrels per day. No. 6 was aban-
doned at 1912 feet without showing any oil. No. 7
yielded petroleum at 1000 feet, but only in small quan-
tities. No. 8, at 1009 feet, produces a good supply of
oil. No. 9, at the same depth, also produces oil, while
No. 10, sunk to a depth of 1012 feet, produced a little
oil at 272 and 1000 feet. These ten wells have all been
drilled in a restricted area measuring about 300 meters
each way.

The crude petroleum of the Union Oil Company's wells
is of a superior quality, analysis showing 13% gasoline
and 30% of illuminating oil. Between December, 1916,
and June, 1918, these wells produced 1,740,051 gallons
of crude. This oil is at present sold to the West Indian
Refining Company at the rate of 12(^ per gallon.

Just north of the Union Oil Company's wells are what
are known as the Jorge Wells, where the Cuban Petro-
leum Company have been drilling for oil since 1917.
They sank one well to 840 feet, which at first produced
25 barrels a day, but afterwards dropped to two barrels
a day, although producing a great quantity of gas. Well
No. 2 of this company, sunk to 1 1 1 feet, was abandoned.
Well No. 3 produced 210 barrels the first day, but after-
wards dwindled to an average of 100 barrels a day. In
the month of June, 1918, 3,385 barrels of oil were pro-
duced, together with a large amount of gas, that is con-
sumed for fuel in the two furnaces of the company. All
of this petroleum is sold to the West Indian Refining
Company, of Havana.

132 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

In another section of the Jorge Claim, the Republic
Petroleum Company drilled a well to a depth of 2,200
feet, finding petroleum at 995 feet. East of the Santiago
or Union Oil Company's wells, the Bacuranao Company
sank a well to a depth of 1009 feet, that produced 12
barrels per hour during several days. This company
delivers its oil to market over the Union Oil Company's
pipe lines.

The wells drilled on the Union Oil Company's prop-
erty, together with those of the Jorge claim, are all
grouped in an area that does not exceed 20,000 square
meters. Nearly all have produced petroleum at a depth
of approximately 1000 feet, most of them in small quan-
tities; but they may nevertheless be considered as pro-
ducing on a commercial basis, since their product sells
at a good price.

The oil wells of Cuba so far have not produced any-
thing like the enormous quantities that issue from the
wells in the United States and Mexico, but the results
are encouraging, especially since the explorations so far
have been confined to a very moderate depth, seldom ex-
ceeding 1500 feet. It is quite probable that wells in
this section will be ultimately drilled to a depth of at least
4,000 feet.

Petroleum, as we know, is found in many different
kinds of geological formations. In Pennsylvania we
meet crude oil in the Devonic and carboniferous strata;
in Canada in the Silurian; in the State of Colorado in the
cretaceous; in Virginia in the bituminous coal lands; in
South Carolina in the Triassic ; in Venezuela it occurs in
mica formations ; while in the Caucasus again it is in the
cretaceous. No fixed rule therefore can be said to desig-
nate or control the geological formation that may yield
oil.

All of the petroleum found in Cuba, so far, seems to
have its origin in cretaceous formations, corresponding
probably to the Secondary. A somewhat significant fact

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 133

is that petroleum in this Island seems to be invariably
associated with igneous rocks. So far all of it, or at least
all in wells worthy of consideration, seems to come from
deposits that lie along the lines of contact between the
serpentines and various strata of sedimentary rocks. Up
to the present, wells that have been drilled in sedimentary
strata, at any considerable distance from the intrusion of
serpentine rocks, have produced no results.

E. de Goyler has reached the conclusion that the oils
found below the serpentine, or at points of contact be-
tween serpentine and sedimentary rocks, had their origin
in Jurassic limestone. Rocks of this period form a large
part of the Organ Mountains of Pinar del Rio, and the
above quoted authority is confident that the asphalt and
petroleum fields found in the immediate vicinity of ser-
pentine thrusts during volcanic action are all filtrations
from deposits far below the surface. This view seems
to agree with results of observation made in the neighbor-
hood of the Bacuranao oil fields, where the drills have
usually penetrated a considerable depth of serpentine
rock before meeting the petroleum-bearing strata of sand
and limestone.

Frederick C. Clapp, in his study of the structural
classification of fields of petroleum and natural gas, read
before the Geological Society of America, stated that in
Cuba there are undoubtedly deposits which he designates
as coming from a subdivision of sedimentary strata, with
masses of lacolites, an unusual form of deposit, met
in the Furbero Petroleum fields of Mexico, where oil
bearing strata lie both above and below the lacolite.

The consensus of opinion among experts who have
examined the recent explorations in the neighborhood of
Bacuranao seems to be that in spite of the fact that no
oil well in Cuba, up to the present, has produced large
quantities of petroleum, there is excellent reason for be-
lieving that wells drilled to a depth of three or four thou-
sand feet, in zones that have been carefully studied by

134 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

competent geologists, may yet rival in amount of produc-
tion those of the best petroleum fields in other parts of
the world.

The deposits of asphalt in Cuba, in view of the exten-
sive road building planned for this Republic, have an
undoubted present and future value well worthy of con-
sideration. Asphalt of excellent quality, and of grades
varying all the way from a remarkably pure, clean liquid
form, up through all degrees of consistency to the hard,
dry, vitreous deposits that resemble bituminous coal suffi-
ciently to furnish an excellent fuel, is found in Cuba in
large quantities. Most of it is easily accessible, and of
grades that command very good prices for commercial
purposes in the world's markets.

CHAPTER XIII
FORESTRY

The virgin forests of Cuba, at the time of the Span-
ish conquest, were rich in hardwoods, such as mahogany,
cedar, rosewood, ebony, lignum-vitae and many others
unknown in the markets of the United States. During
four centuries these forests have been one of Cuba's most
important assets. Unfortunately this source of wealth
has been drawn upon without forethought or discrimina-
tion since the first white settlers began to use the products
of the forest in 1515.

The completion of the North Shore Railroad of Cama-
guey, extending from Caibarien to Nuevitas, will soon
open up the great hardwood forests of the Sierra de
Cubitas and add greatly to the wealth of that district.

There are 367 varieties of valuable forest trees, de-
scribed with more or less detail in the Bureau of Forestry
connected with the Department of Agriculture of Cuba.
More than half of these are susceptible of taking a high
polish, and would if known undoubtedly command re-
munerative prices in the hardwood markets of the w^orld.
At the present time, two only, cedar and mahogany, are
sought and quoted in the commercial centers of the United
States.

While we find in Cuba few forest trees common to the
United States, nearly all of the standard woods, such as
oak, hickory, ash, maple, beech and walnut, seem to
have their equivalents, from the vie^'point of utility at
least, in the native woods of this Island. For purposes
of manufacture, carriage making, naval uses, house
building, cabinet work and fine carving, or general con-
struction, Cuba has many w'oods of unsurpassed merit
and often of rare beauty.

135

136 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

The following list contains 60 of the most useful woods
found in the forests of Cuba. Nearly all of these take a
very high polish and are valuable in the arts as well as
for construction purposes. Not more than a half dozen,
unfortunately, are known to the hardwood trade, even by
name, and since most of these names are purely local,
they would mean little to the dealers outside of the Island
of Cuba, where most of them are in daily use;
Acana: indigenous to Cuba; grows to height of 50 feet
with diameter of two feet; hard, compact, deep wine
color; used in general construction work, and is espe-
cially valuable for making carpenters' planes and
tools. Wears indefinitely. Sp. Gr. 1.28.
AcEiTiLLo: indigenous; grows to height of 30 feet; com-
mon throughout the Island; strong and tough; light
yellow color; used for general construction. Sp. Gr.
1.04.
Aite: indigenous; grows to height of 25 feet; diameter
2 feet; of common occurrence; strong and compact;
light brown color; used in cabinet work. Sp. Gr. 1.07.
Ayua Blanco: indigenous; 55 feet in height; 2 feet in
diameter; found in Pinar del Rio and Isle of Pines;
soft; white in color; used for boxes, beehives, cross
beams; produces a gum used in medicine. Sp. Gr.
0.72.
Almacigo Colorado: indigenous; 50 feet in height; 2
feet in diameter; found everywhere; soft; reddish
color, used for fence posts and charcoal ; has medicinal
properties and produces resin. Sp. Gr. 0.38.
Amiqua: indigenous; 40 feet in height; 7 feet diameter;
hard, compact, reddish in color; found in light soils;
used for joists and beams, and for wagons. Sp. Gr.
1.16.
Algarrobo: indigenous; 75 feet in height, diameter 4^4
feet ; strong ; yellowish color ; found in deep soils ; used
for building purposes ; yields a varnish and has medi-
cinal properties. Sp. Gr. 0.64.
Ate J a Macho: indigenous; 50 feet in height; 3 feet in

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 137

diameter; found throughout Island, also in Isle of
Pines ; flexible and hard ; grey in color ; used in general
construction and ship building; Sp. Gr. 0.87.

Ateja Hembra: indigenous; 50 feet in height; 3 feet
diameter; found in Pinar del Rio; hard, compact and
heavy grained; yellow in color; found in deep soils;
used for general carpenter work. Sp. Gr. 0.62.

Aguacatillo: indigenous; 55 feet in height; found all
over Island, including Isle of Pines; soft and light;
light green color; found in black lands; general car-
penter work; Sp. Gr. 1.14.

Arabo: indigenous; 25 feet in height; found on coast;
fibrous, compact and strong; reddish brown color;
used for poles and general carpenter work ; bears fruit
eaten by cattle; takes beautiful polish; Sp. Gr. 1.52.

Abran de Costa: indigenous; found Pinar del Rio;
strong, compact; mahogany color; cabinet work; Sp.
Gr. 0.97.

Baga: indigenous; 25 feet in height; found on coast and
on river banks ; very light in weight ; grepsh brown in
color; used for fish net floats; bears fruit eaten by
cattle; Sp. Gr. 0.6.

B.aria: indigenous; 50 feet in height; found all over
Island, in deep soil; easily worked, dark brown color;
used in general carpenter work; flowers produce feed
for bees; takes a fine polish; Sp. Gr. 0.78.

Brazilete Colorado: indigenous; 25 feet in height;
found on coast, also in the savannas; excellent wood;
reddish browTi; used for turning purposes and inlaid
work; takes high polish; produces a dye; Sp. Gr. 0.9.

Bayito: indigenous; 30 feet in height; found in Pinar
del Rio; hard and compact; variegated brown color;
used for frames, posts, etc.; takes high polish. Sp.
Gr. 1.25.

Caguairan or Quiebra Hacha: indigenous; 45 feet
height, 3 feet diameter; found in Oriente; resists rot;
compact, heavy and hard; reddish brown color; used
for beams, channel posts, etc. Sp. Gr. 1.44.

138 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Cana Fistola Cimarrona: indigenous; 45 feet in
height, scattered over Island; beautiful, strong and
resistant wood; reddish in color; adapted for tool
handles. Sp. Gr. 0.87.

Caimitillo: indigenous; 35 feet height; found all over
Island; hard, tough wood; used in carriage manufac-
ture; bears fruit; Sp. Gr. 1.1.

Carey de Costa : indigenous small tree, found on coasts
and savannas; heavy and brittle; dark tortoise shell
color; takes beautiful polish; used for cabinet work;
Sp. Gr. 1.04.

Cerillo: indigenous; 35 feet in height; diameter 18
inches; found in western end of Island; excellent
wood; yellow in color; used for cabinet work; takes
fine polish; Sp. Gr. 0.56.

Carne de Doncella: indigenous; 50 feet height; 18
inches diameter; common in forests; compact, tough
and hard; rose color; grown in rich lands; used for
table tops and carriage work. Sp. Gr. 0.92.

Chicharron Amarillo: indigenous; 36 feet in height;
18 inches in diameter; common in forests; strong,
elastic and durable ; dark yellow color ; used for posts,
sleepers, channel stakes, etc. Sp. Gr. 0.96.

Chicharron Prieto: indigenous; 36 feet height; 18
inches diameter; strong solid wood; brown color; used
in carriage work.

Caoba or Mahogany : five varieties of this tree ; indige-
nous; 36 feet in height, from six to twelve feet in
diameter; grows all over the Island; excellent and
durable wood; color mahogany or dark red; used for
fine carpenter work and furniture; Sp. Gr. 1.45.

Cedro or Cedar: four varieties: indigenous; 60 to 75
feet in height; 6 feet in diameter; found all over Is-
land; soft and easily worked; light mahogany color;
used in fine carpenter work; cabinet work; Sp. Gr. 0.9.

CuYA o Carolina: three varieties; indigenous; very hard
and compact; light wine color; used for uprights,
beams and construction work. Sp. Gr. 1.02.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 139

Dagame: indigenous; 40 to 45 feet in height; 18 inches
in diameter ; grows on hilly land ; strong and compact ;
yellowish grey color; used for carpentry and carriage
work; Sp. Gr. 0.74.

Royal Ebony: indigenous; 34 feet in height; found on
coast lands; good wood; black in color; used for
canes; inlaid work; familiar in United States for fine
cabinet work; Sp. Gr. 1.17.

EsPUELA DE Caballero: indigenous; small tree, found
all over Island ; excellent wood ; yellow to red in color ;
used for fancy canes, turning and inlaid work; Sp.
Gr. 0.9.

Fustete: indigenous; 36 feet in height; found in dense
forests or Oriente and Camaguey; dark wine color;
used for carpenter and carriage w^ork; is yellow dye
wood; Sp. Gr. 1.32.

Granadillia: indigenous; 20 to 25 feet in height; small
diameter; hard, compact and tough; mottled brown
and bright yellow in color; used for fine inlaid work
and canes; Sp. Gr. 0.89.

GuAMA DE CosTUs: indigenous; 25 to 35 feet in height;
hard, tough and compact; light cinnamon color; used
in construction work and for ox-yokes and plows ; Sp.
Gr. 0.68.

GuAYABO CoTORRERO: indigenous; 25 to 30 feet in
height; small diameter; all over Island; ductile,
chrome yellow color; used for cabinet work; tool han-
dles; Sp. Gr. 0.92.

GuARACAN Prieto or Lignum Vitae: indigenous; 55 to
60 feet in height; comparatively slender; found on
coast ; durable and compact ; dark brown mottled with
yellow; used for turning, banisters, croquet balls, and
shaft bearings; Sp. Gr. 1.17.

GuAYACAN Blanco: indigenous; 30 to 35 feet in height;
slender, strong and compact ; light yellow color ; grows
on black lands; especially useful for carriage and
wagon spokes; Sp. Gr. 0.79.

Humus : indigenous ; hard compact and tough ; blood red

140 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

in color; fine carpentry and cabinet work; furnishes
a dye; Sp. Gr. 0.84.

JiQUi: indigenous; 50 to 60 feet in height; 3 feet dia-
meter; strong, hard, durable, dark brown in color;
found in all soils; used for supports, posts, channel
stakes and stakes for boundary lines; never rots in
swamp land; makes good charcoal.

JucARO Prieto: two varieties; indigenous; 60 to 75 feet
in height; four feet in diameter; all over Island; very
strong; impervious to rot in swampy and bad lands;
used for wagon and carpenter work; especially
adapted for pilings.

JucARO Amarillo: indigenous; 30 to 35 feet in height;
slender; all over the Island; strong and compact, yel-
low color, especially adapted for posts and wagon
axles; Sp. Gr. 1.13.

Jacaranda: indigenous; 45 to 55 feet in height; strong,
tough and resistant; yellowish grey; carpenter and
furniture work; Sp. Gr. 0.89.

Jagua: indigenous; 30 to 35 feet in height; 18 inches in
diameter; found all over Island; strong, elastic and
durable; yellow in color; adapted for carriage work,
moulds, lances, etc.

Jatia: indigenous; 25 to 30 feet in height; 16 inches in
diameter ; found in eastern end of Island ; strong, hard
and compact; dark yellow; used in cabinet work and
canes; Sp. Gr. .94.

Jayajabico: indigenous; small tree, found in Pinar del
Rio; hard, tough and compact; light chestnut color;
used in carriage work, cabinet work, canes, etc.; Sp.
Gr. 1.12.

Lebrisa: indigenous; 25 to 30 feet in height; eastern
end of the Island; strong and resistant; yellowish
color; adapted for axles, tillers, and general carpenter
work; Sp. Gr. 1.00.

Majugua Macho: indigenous; three varieties; 45 to 50
feet in height; 3 feet in diameter; found all over
Island; very resilient and flexible; mouse color; var-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 141

iegated with black and cream splashes used in fine
cabinet and furniture work; also fine for carriage
work, knees and arches. From the inner bark natives
braid a strong picket rope in a few minutes; Sp. Gr.
.59.

Maboa: indigenous; 30 to 45 feet in height; 2 feet in
diameter; found in all forests; strong and compact,
ash color; used for beams, posts and also for cabinet
work; Sp. Gr. 1.3.

Manzanillo: indigenous; 20 to 25 feet in height; 3
feet in diameter; found on coast; good wood; yellow-
ish grey color; found in the low lands; used for fur-
niture and fine cabinet work; Sp. Gr. 0.7.

Mamoncillo: indigenous; 55 to 60 feet in height; 3 feet
in diameter ; found all over the Island ; hard and com-
pact; light mahogany color; yields an edible plum;
used in cabinet work; Sp. Gr. 0.85.

Moral Negro: found all over the Island, strong and
solid ; dark chestnut color ; used in fine carpentry and
cabinet work; Sp. Gr. 0.75.

MoRUO: indigenous; 50 to 60 feet in height; found in
all forests ; good wood ; wine colored ; used for general
carpentry and carriage work; takes a high polish; Sp.
Gr. 1.06.

Ocuje: indigenous; 45 to 50 feet in height; strong,
tough and resistant; red color; used in carriage work
and channel stakes; Sp. Gr. 0.77.

Palo de Lanza: (lance wood) indigenous; 30 to 35
feet in height ; very resilient and flexible ; light yellow
color; used for yard sticks, tool handles, light strong
poles and wood springs; Sp. Gr. 0.84.

Palo Campeche: (log wood) indigenous; 25 to 35 feet
in height; found in deep forests; hard, heavy and
compact; deep purple color; used for turning and
produces log wood dye; Sp. Gr. 0.9.

Roble: five varieties; indigenous; 40 to 45 feet in
height; good wood, general carpenter work and shelv-
ing; Sp. Gr. 0.73.

142 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Sabina: indigenous; found in eastern end of Island;
hard beautiful wood, mottled chocolate color; furni-
ture and general construction; Sp. Gr. 0.65.
Sabicu: indigenous; very large tree, sometimes called
imitation mahogany; hard, tough and compact; ma-
hogany color; used for rail chalks, port holes of ships,
wagons, etc.
Tagua: indigenous; 25 to 30 feet in height; hard, com-
pact and durable; used for fine cabinet work and
musical instruments; Sp. Gr. 0.7.
Yaba: indigenous; 45 feet in height; abundant, strong
and compact; reddish color; used for wagon work,
general construction and turning; Sp. Gr. 0.88.
Tana : indigenous ; very hard, inflexible ; grows in damp
and sandy soils ; specially adapted for naval construc-
tion; Sp. Gr. 1.02.
Yamagua: indigenous; 30 to 35 feet in height; 20 inches
in diameter; excellent wood; reddish yellow; used in
general construction work; Spec. Gr. 0.7.
Specimens of all these woods, together with some three
hundred others, form a collection that may be seen at
any time at the Government Experimental Station at
Santiago de las Vegas.

Scattered throughout the broad grass covered savan-
nas that lie along some parts of the coast of Cuba, are
found heavily wooded clumps of forest trees, that stand
up out of the grassy plains like islands, and give rather
a peculiar effect to the landscape. In these "Cayos de
Monte," as they are called, are found nearly all of the
small, hard and durable woods of Cuba, such as Ebony,
Lignum Vitae or Guayacan, Grenadillo and others of
similar character, that seldom make tall trees, but that
frequently have a value in the markets of the world that
cause them to be sold by the pound or hundredweight,
instead of by board measure.

The great bulk of timber lands, or virgin forests of
Cuba, are scattered throughout the mountainous dis-
tricts of the Island, mostly in Santa Clara and Oriente,

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 143

and belong to non-resident owners living in Spain.
While the timber is very valuable, the cost of cutting
and getting out the logs with the help of oxen, precludes
any possibility of profit and will insure their remaining
untouched until less expensive methods are found for
their removal to the coast. The price of these lands
vary at the present time from $3 to $15 per acre, and
they can be purchased only in large tracts.

In passing it may be mentioned that many of the for-
est lands of the mountainous districts are located within
the mineral zones of the Island, but the purchase of the
property does not carry with it a right to the ore de-
posits that may lie below the surface. These can be
acquired only through registering mineral claims or "de-
nouncements" in accordance with the laws of the Re-
public.

Along the southern coast of Cuba, bordering on the
Caribbean, especially in the Province of Camaguey, are
still large areas of virgin forests growing on low, flat
lands. Some of these are traversed by streams, down
which the logs are rafted during the rainy season.

Quite a large area of forest is still retained by the
Government. The sale of these lands is forbidden by
law, although under certain conditions they may be
rented to private parties. Some of them have been dis-
tributed among the veterans of the War of Independence.

The total amount of forest still retained by the Re-
public is estimated at 37,000 caballeries or 1,226,450
acres, of which 519,144 acres are located in the Prov-
ince of Oriente; 307,910 in Santa Clara; 148,200 in
Pinar del Rio; 113,620 in Matanzas; 88,130 in Cama-
guey and 49,400 in the Province of Havana.

CHAPTER XIV
AGRICULTURE

The Island of Cuba is essentially an agricultural
country. Its fertile soils have come from the constant
erosion of rocks by heavy rains, through eons of time.
Mountain torrents have brought down the debris of
crumbling mountains of feldspar, shale and limestone
to be deposited on the plains below, while rushing
streams have eaten their way into the plateaus of Pinar
del Rio and Oriente, until we have at last a marvellously
rich, tropical island garden, supplied by Nature with all
the ingredients needed to maintain its fertility for many
centuries to come.

More important perhaps than fertility of soil, is the
fact that Cuba lies just within the edge of the Tropics,
securing thereby an immunity from snow, cold wind and
frost. This enables her to grow many crops that other-
wise would be barred. More than all, those vegetables
that in the United States and more northern climes thrive
during only a few months of summer, may be grown in
Cuba at almost any time in the year.

On the other hand it is true that many of the great
grain crops, such as wheat, rye, oats and barley, cannot
be successfully grown in Cuba, or at least on only a few
of the more elevated plateaus of Santa Clara and Oriente.
But, even were it possible to grow wheat in Cuba, it is
more profitable to buy grain from districts further north,
giving in exchange sugar, tobacco, henequen, coffee,
cacao, hides, honey, citrus fruits and winter vegetables.

Freedom from frost means much to the agriculturist,
since it relieves him from the anxiety suffered by the
farmers of Florida and the Gulf States, that although

144

AZA7AH ,3HA*I JAqi

luoi nsdi aiom
-mi }o gfir J '

dgixmb

'{d barbiiOT ;

bnJB Dllduq ';„..

orvb £ «niifim

'^TA3HT JA.V:OITA'/[

lb adJ lo eiablijjd sdT

' nacnmoD hffiq aahuingj

' Jon .c^nibfiud Jn£noq

T .jo^Ba 'jilcinc bn£

.Jiisd bflB euoiboracnoD

3d vllfijjps adl gflJMae

' ildguoioriJ suocofil sdl

3i£ agaibliud 3j£vhq

.i37f}fnr rlniai lo siJasD

rough eons ot time.

NATIONAL THEATRE, CENTRAL PARK, HAVANA

The builders of the city of Havana through more than four
centuries paid commendable attention to the right placing of im-
portant buildings, not only for convenience but also for picturesque
and artistic effect. Thus the National Theatre, one of the most
commodious and beautiful playhouses in the world, has for its
setting the equally beautiful Central Park, and is approached by
the famous thoroughfare of the Prado. Other notable public and
private buildings are suitably grouped about it, making a civic
centre of rarely impressive appearance.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 145

lying on the other side of the Tropic of Cancer, and en-
joying sufficient warmth to produce vegetables during
the winter months, are nevertheless exposed to th^ dan-
ger of absolute ruin, or at least the loss of a year's
work.

That, however, which favors successful agriculture in

CUBAN RXJRAL HOME

Cuba more than anything else, is the fact that her copious
rainfall begins in May, and continuing throughout the
warm months of summer terminates in the latter part of
October, leaving the winter cool and dry, so that fall
crops may ripen and be gathered free from danger of the
cold, rainy days of December so common in the Gulf
States.

In stock raising, also, not only is the Island supplied
with an abundance of nutritious grass, on which animals
may graze throughout the year, but the young are never
subjected to loss from the cold winds, sleets, and driving
storms, that decimate the herds of less favored countries
in the North.

Cuba undoubtedly has some agricultural drawbacks
and disadvantages, but few that may not be successfully
overcome with intelligent management and the judicious
care which renders stock raising profitable in any coun-

146 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

try. The one great advantage of the Republic lies in
the fact that the farmer, if he so desires, can put in three
hundred and sixty five days of every year at profitable
work in his fields, orchards or pastures, with no time
necessarily lost. Nor is he compelled to work half the
year to provide food and fuel sufficient to feed and keep
warm during the remaining six months of comparative
idleness.

Owing to the exceptional natural facilities for pro-
ducing sugar and tobacco cheaply and easily, the farm-
ers of Cuba largely become, in one sense of the word,
■'specialists," and little by little have fallen into the
habit of producing enormous crops of these two staples
that are sold abroad, while food crops are imported at
an expense far above that which it would cost to pro-
duce them in the Island, This neglect of food and for-
age crops would seem to render Cuba an ideal place for
the general farmer and stock raiser, and the Department
of Agriculture, under the direction of General E. Sanchez
Agramonte, is now making every effort to place the ad-
vantages of the country for diversified farming before
the outside world, so that practical farmers and families
from agricultural districts abroad may be induced to
come to Cuba and settle permanently.

The Republic ultimately will raise her own live stock
and should produce sufficient corn, rice, beans, peanuts
and perhaps wheat to be, to a large extent at least, in-
dependent of the outside world. With this purpose in
view the Department of Agriculture has encouraged im-
migration and through the Experimental Station at San-
tiago de las Vegas is making greater efforts than ever
before to ascertain just what crops and what seeds or
plants are best adapted to the soil and climate of Cuba.

This information is being gathered and carefully di-
gested so that it may be given to the homeseekers and
settlers of which the country stands in such urgent need.
At the request of the Secretary of Agriculture, Dr. Cal-
vino, chief of the Government Station, together with his

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 147

staff, is searching for and bringing from all parts of the
globe every plant and every variety of animal that can
be utilized for food purposes.

Nearly every variety of wheat, corn, sorghum, rice, po-
tatoes, grains and tubers, is being tested and tried on
the 160 acres of land belonging to the station. Grapes,
peaches, plums and other semi-tropical fruits are being
planted, experimented with and carefully watched for
results, while forage plants and grasses from South
America, Africa, Australia, India, China, Europe and
the United States are being tried, each under conditions
approaching as nearly as possible those of its original
habitat.

Although Cuba with its adjacent islands has an area
of only about 45,000 square miles — approximating the
area of the State of Mississippi — one finds many va-
rieties of soil, the characteristics of which, even when
lying contiguous, are so varied as to be astounding.
High and comparatively dry plateaus, in places, rise al-
most abruptly from low level savannas that remain moist
in the driest seasons of the year. Rich deep soiled moun-
tain sides and valleys may be found within a few miles
of pine barrens, whose hillsides are valued only for the
mineral wealth that may lie beneath the surface.

Great areas of rich virgin forest, in both mountain and
plain, still exist, especially in the eastern half of the
Island, where many thousands of acres in the open, if
planted with suitable grasses, would support countless
herds of cattle and live stock. To bring all of this ter-
ritory as soon as possible into a state of profitable cul-
tivation, and thus supply permanent homes for farmers
and stock raisers, is the great aim and purpose of the
Department of Agriculture in Cuba today, and to the
consummation of these plans Secretary Agramonte is
devoted, with a most able and energetic Assistant Sec-
retary in Dr. Carlos Armenteros.

The great pressing problems of agriculture in the Re-
public would seem to be quite sufficient for any one man's

148 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

energies, but, as the present government was planned and
organized, an enormous amount of additional work, in-
cluding the supervision of mines, forests, weights, meas-
ures, bank inspection, commerce and labor, come under
its jurisdiction, rendering the responsibilities of the De-
partment heavier and more complicated than any other
branch of the Government, and demanding a degree of
persistence and versatility probably not called for on the
part of any other Cabinet Officer.

The Department of Agriculture has a personnel of 640
while approximat-ely a million and a half dollars are ap-
propriated by the Budget for carrying on the work of
the Department. For convenience of administration the
Department is divided into the following sections :

Agriculture,

Veterinary Inspection and Zoology,

Commerce and Industry,

Immigration, Colonization and Labor,

Forests and Mines,

Patents and Trade Marks.

In addition to these are several Bureaus, stations and of-
fices that report directly to the Assistant Secretary.

The Section of Agriculture, naturally, is the largest
and most comprehensive of the various divisions or
branches of the Department. Under its direction are
the six various "gran j as" or Agricultural Schools that
are maintained, one in each Province. The distribution
of seeds and the awarding of agricultural prizes come
under its direction, as so also the inspection of fish,
turtling and sponging, and the registration of domestic
animals, including horses, mules and cattle.

It has also charge of all agricultural fairs and exhibi-
tions, either foreign or domestic. The purpose of the
"Granjas" or agricultural schools is to educate the chil-
dren of the rural districts along those lines which will
tend to make them practical farmers and useful citizens

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 149

of the community. Pupils are admitted at the age of
fourteen and are given tuition, board, lodging and clothes
at the expense of the Government.

An excellently equipped laboratory for the analysis
of soils, fertilizer, or other material pertaining to agri-
cultural industries, is maintained by the Division of Agri-
culture, and forms one of the most useful branches of
the Department.

The Division of Commerce and Industry is entrusted
with the inspection of nearly everything pertaining to
the commerce and industry of the country. One very im-
portant branch is that of the inspection of banks, to-
bacco factories, sugar plantations and mills, and general
industries of the Island. A Bureau of Statistics is also
attached to this Division.

The Division of Veterinary Science and Animal In-
dustry, is entrusted with the development of animal in-
dustry throughout the Island, and with the duty of pro-
tecting, as far as possible, livestock of all kinds from
disease, either foreign or domestic. A laboratory, thor-
oughly equipped, is maintained as an auxiliary of this
Division, enabling the Director to determine the nature
of any given disease and to provide means and material
for combating it.

Under the direction of the same Section are six poul-
try stations, one in each Province, where experiments are
conducted with reference to poultry raising and to the
cure of infectious diseases that may afflict. Three breed-
ing stations, too, dependent on this Bureau, have been
established in the eastern, central and western districts.

The Division of Forests and Mines, owing to the in-
calculable wealth of Cuba's mines of iron, copper, man-
ganese, chrome, etc., and to the immense value of her
virgin forests of hard woods, scattered throughout the
mountainous districts of the interior is of special im-
portance. Forest inspectors are maintained whose duty
is to see that timber is not cut without authorization from
either government or private lands, or surreptitiously

150 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

smuggled away from the coast. The enormous acreage,
too, of the red and yellow mangrove, remarkably rich in
tannin, that encircles nearly all the islands bordering on
the interior lagoons, and the making of charcoal carried
on in these districts, are supervised by the forest in-
spectors.

Every mineral claim located in the Republic must be
reported to the Director of Mines in charge of this Di-
vision, where it is registered in books kept for the purpose
in the name of the individual petitioning, with the date
and hour of record, together with the dimensions or
boundaries of said claim carefully indicated. With this
registration a payment of $2 for each hectare of land
is made and receipted for, which entitles the owner, after
said claim has been surveyed by the engineers pertain-
ing to the Division of Mines, to the sole privilege of
working the claim, or taking either mineral asphalt or
oil from beneath the surface.

In the Division of Trade Marks and Patents, one of
the most important in the Department, patents and trade-
marks are granted for a nominal sum to both citizens
and foreigners. Companies that have secured patents
in foreign countries, after producing evidence to that ef-
fect, may duplicate or extend their patents in this office,
and trade-marks that have been established in other
countries may be registered in Cuba on proper applica-
tion. Patents for books and publications are also han-
dled in this Division.

The Department of Meteorology is responsible for all
astronomical and meteorological observations, and for the
publication of data in regard thereto. The Weather
Bureau and all observatories come under its jurisdiction,
together with the publication of official time. It is re-
sponsible for the collection of all data concerning weather
and climate that may affect crops, which data is published
weekly, monthly and annually.

Under the Division of Immigration, Colonization and

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 151

Labor matters pertaining to subjects connected ^'ith im-
migration, wages, hours and working condition of la-
borers and their connection with capital or employers, are
handled and adjusted. During the year 1918, this Bu-
reau amicably settled eighteen labor disputes, thus avoid-
ing threatened strikes. Records of all accidents to labor
are kept on file.

Every immigrant entering the Island of Cuba from
any country must be provided with $30 in cash before
being released from Triscornia, the receiving station on
the Bay of Havana. From this station immigrants with-
out means are looked after by the Division of Immigra-
tion, and the company or person, who, desiring his serv-
ices, takes him out, is required to give a bond that he will
not become a public charge. This Department also is-
sues permits to sugar estates, corporations or con/panies
who wish to import labor on a large scale.

Under the direction of this Division, the Government
has started a colony for laborers at Pogolotti, a suburb of
Havana, where 950 houses have been built, each with a
parlor, two bedrooms, a bath, kitchen and a yard. They
are rented to laborers only, at a monthly rental of $3.12.
Of this $2.71 is applied to the credit of the renter to-
wards the purchase of the house, the remainder going for
expenses of administration and water. The purchase
price is fixed at $650, and when this has been paid the
laborer becomes the owner.

In addition to the above mentioned Divisions or Sec-
tions there are several independent Bureaus or offices,
reporting directly to the Sub-Secretary and acting under
his instructions. Among these is the Bureau of Game
and Bird Protection, organized to enforce the law regulat-
ing the open and closed seasons for hunting deer, and
the various game birds, ducks, pigeons, quail, etc., that
abound in Cuba. The work of this Bureau is conducted
along lines and methods similar to those employed in the
United States. The duties of the Director of this most

152 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

worthy Institution are onerous and unending and to his
indefatigable energy is due the saving of thousands of
valuable birds and animals.

A Bureau known as the Bureau of Publications and
Exchanges is charged with the publication in Spanish
of an Agricultural Review, intended for the enlighten-
ment of the agriculturists of the Island. In this monthly
are printed the reports of the many experiments and im-
portant work carried on at the Government's Experi-
mental Station at Santiago de las Vegas, and other mat-
ters pertaining to Agricultural industries.

It is the desire of the Government of Cuba to encourage
immigration, and to invite especially agriculturists and
farmers from all countries, and to use every legitimate
means of inducing the better class of immigrants to make
permanent homes in the agricultural districts of the
Island. But in order to guard against misleading in-
formation, and possible failure on the part of settlers
from foreign countries in Cuba, one of the main objects
of the Bureau of Information of the Department of Agri-
culture is not only to promulgate the exact truth, as far
as possible, in regard to conditions, but also to protect
the homeseeker against the machinations of irresponsi-
ble real estate agents, and the disappointment that would
result from the purchase or cultivation of lands that
could not give satisfactory returns.

The Government wants every homeseeker or investor
of capital in Cuba to make a success of his undertaking,
since only success redounds to the credit and reputation
of the Republic. Hence every effort is being made to
advise prospective settlers and investors, in regard to
any legitimate undertaking that may be contemplated.
This advice is invariably gratis and correspondents are
requested not to enclose stamps for replies to their com-
munications, since these are official and do not require
postage. Personal interviews are invited at all times un-
der the same conditions.

During the first Government of Intervention, under

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 153

the direction of General Leonard Wood, an agricultural
experimental station was inaugurated on the outskirts of
the little town of Santiago de las Vegas, some ten miles
from the City of Havana. One hundred and sixty-six
acres were purchased for the use of the station and Mr.
Earle, formerly connected with the Department of Agri-
culture in Washington, was installed as Director.

The grounds were well located, with a fine automobile
drive passing along its eastern boundary and the Havana
Central Railroad close by on the west. A large quad-
rangular edifice occupied by Spanish military forces,
was transformed into the main building of the station.
Other houses for the protection of stock, machinery, etc.,
were soon added, while resident homes were built for
the officers of the station.

An abundant source of good water was found at a
depth of one hundred feet and large steel tanks were
erected so irrigation could be utilized w^here needed.

Choice fruit and shade trees were brought, not only
from the different provinces of Cuba, but also from other
parts of the tropical world and planted for experimental
purposes. Of the latter the Australian eucalyptus has
made a wonderful growth.

A splendid staff of botanists, horticulturists, bacter-
iologists and men versed in animal industry were in-
stalled to assist the Director. Considerable valuable
pioneer work was done by these men and much useful
knowledge was imparted to the farmers of Cuba.

With the installation of the Cuban Republic, several
changes were made in the Direction of the Station, but
the routine work was carried on with a fair degree of
success. To bring about radical reforms among the
older agriculturists, who for many years have been ad-
dicted to the antiquated methods of their forefathers,
is not an easy task in any country. To separate the ad-
ministration of the Agricultural Station of Cuba from
the bane of politics was still more difficult.

With the inauguration of General Menocal's second

154 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

term in office, several changes were made, the result of
which have been both marked and beneficial. General
Eugenio Sanchez Agramonte, former President of the
Senate and an ardent lover of everything connected with
farm life, was appointed Secretary of Agriculture, while
Doctor Carlos Armenteros, an enthusiastic and indefa-
tigable worker, was made Assistant Secretary.

General Agramonte, realizing all that a well conducted
experimental station meant to the agricultural interests
of the country, after careful search and examination into
credentials, selected Dr. Mario Calvano, an Italian by
birth, but cosmopolitan in education and experience, for
the new Director of the Station, while larger credits and
a greater number of assistants were placed at his dis-
posal.

The result was to a high degree both beneficial and
satisfactory. The main building was renovated and, as
the Director said, "made possible," from floor to ceiling.
The southwestern part of the edifice was turned over to
the Department of Woods, Textile Plants and Allied
Studies, and here may be found, labeled and artistically
arranged, most of the indigenous woods of the forests of
Cuba, both in the natural state and highly polished.
Samples of every textile plant known to the Island, of
which there are many, hang from the wall, showing the
plant as it was taken from the fields, and how it looks
after being decorticated.

Leaving this section one steps down into a small gar-
den, covering not over a quarter of an acre, in which may
be found growing specimens of valuable and interesting
plants and trees that have been gathered from Cuba and
from other parts of the world so that their adaptability
to this soil and climate may be studied.

The entire northern side of the building is given over
to Animal Industry and to Bacteriology, where experi-
ments of vital importance to animal life are conducted
under the direction of experts. Not long ago men were
brought from the Bureau of Animal Industry in Wash-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 155

ington to assist the Station to establish a plant for the
manufacture of the serum that has proven so efficacious
in protecting hogs from the cholera or pintadilla, as it
is known in Cuba. Considerable space is given over to
the raising of guinea pigs, for use in experiments in mak-
ing cultures of the germs that produce anthrax and other
diseases that might endanger the herds of the Island.

Many splendid specimens of live stock, at the order
of the Secretary, have been purchased in the United
States and other parts of the world and brought to the
station for breeding purposes. Some twenty odd mag-
nificent stallions, most of them riding animals and cav-
alry remounts, were secured in Kentucky and other states
during the spring of 1918 and brought to the station,
where they have been divided among branch stations
located in the other provinces of the Island.

Excellent specimens of cattle also, including the Jer-
sey, the Holstein, the Durham and Cebu or sacred cattle
of India, have been purchased abroad and brought to
the Station and then installed in splendid quarters, built
of reinforced concrete for their accommodation. The
Cebu has been crossed in Cuba with the native cattle for
some years past with very satisfactory results. Doctor
Calvino states that a two-year old steer, resulting from
the cross between a Cebu and a native cow, will weigh
quite as much as would the ordinary three-year old of
straight breeding.

Many specimens of thoroughbred hogs, including the
Duroc, the Poland China, the Berkshire and the Tam-
worth, have been brought to the station, where they and
their progeny seem to thrive even better than in the coun-
tries where the breed originated. Angora goats, too, that
came from the Northwest, from Texas, and the moun-
tains of Georgia, have given very satisfactory results in
Cuba.

Several thousand chickens, including the Rhode Island
Red, the Pl}Tnouth Rock, the Orpington, Minorcan and
several varieties of Leghorns, were imported from the

156 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

United States and brought to the Station, where they
seem to be doing very well.

Under the direction of Doctor Calvino, nearly every
acre of the Station has been devoted to some useful pur-
pose. The grounds on either side of the main drive-
way are instructive and interesting. As the winter vis-
itor passes down the long lane, he will find various tracts
under comparatively intensive cultivation, planted in
nearly all the vegetables common to the United States in
addition to those found in Cuba. Among others are to-
matoes, egg plants, green peppers, okra, beans, peas, po-
tatoes, sweet potatoes, peanuts, cabbage, beets, malanga,
yucca, name, acelgas and chayete. Each variety is care-
fully labelled, with time of planting and other data neces-
sary for complete reports on results obtained.

Other sections are given over to fruits, and nut bear-
ing trees, those indigenous to Cuba and those brought
from other countries. Among the indigenous fruits we
have the beautiful mango, the agucate, the guanabana,
the marmoncillo, the mamey, Colorado and amarillo, the
anon, the nispero or zapote, the caimito, the tamarind, the
ciruela, and all varieties of the citrus family.

Large beautiful groves of oranges, limes, lemons and
grape fruit in full bearing, form a very interesting part
of the station's exhibit. Some sixteen varieties of the
banana, the most productive source of nourishing food
of all the vegetable kingdom, may be studied here under
favorable conditions.

Several acres have been given over to seed beds and
nursery stock, which in a short time will supply valuable
plants of many kinds to other parts of the Island. A sec-
tion has been devoted to the cultivation of various tex-
tile plants, including the East Indian jute, the ramie,
common flax, and the malva blanca of Cuba.

The large patio that occupies the center of the main
building is adorned not only with many beautiful flowers
common to this latitude, but also with quite a number of
ornamental palms not common to Cuba, or at least, not

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 157

to the Province of Havana. The charm of the spot is
due not alone to the interest that arises from an oppor-
tunity to study animal and vegetable life under favorable
conditions, but also the high degree of intelligent effi-
ciency that has been introduced into the life of the Sta-
tion with the advent of the present Secretary of x\gricul-
ture and Director, Dr. Calvino. Its beneficial influence
is felt throughout the entire Republic.

Owing to the fact that agricultural products form the
chief source of Cuba's revenues, the protection of her va-
rious grains, grasses and useful plants from infection
and disease of whatever nature, becomes a matter of
prime importance. Plant diseases and insect pests have
brought ruin to agricultural efforts in many parts of the
w^orld. Fortunately perhaps most of the country's agri-
cultural effort is devoted to the production of sugar cane,
which is subject to less danger from disease than almost
any other plant of great economical value or utility.

Tobacco, in the western end of the Island, has long
been made the subject of study and care, with the result
that efficient protection has been secured. Various other
plants, however, and especially fruits, are extremely sus-
ceptible to disease and to infection. Some of these in-
cluding citrus fruits, the cocoanut and the mango, have
recently suffered severely from diseases that have been
imported from other countries.

Cuba probably suffers less from these troubles than
any other country within the tropics. Nevertheless her
cocoanut industry, owing to the introduction of what is
termed "bud rot," a few years ago, was reduced from an
annual exportation of 20,000,000 nuts to only a little
over 2,000,000. A disease introduced from Panama
also greatly injured a variety of the banana kno\^'n as
the "manzana."

Not, however, until the unfortunate arrival of the
"Black Fly," discovered in India in 1903, and after-
wards in some mysterious way conveyed to Jamaica,
whence it found its way into Cuba in 1915, near Guan-

158 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

tanamo, did the Government awaken to the fact that it
was confronted by a serious pest that threatened not alone
the citrus fruit industry, but the production of mangoes
and also coffee.

As soon as the Department of Agriculture became
aware of the nature of this new disease, steps were taken
to combat it scientifically, and with all of the resources at
the disposal of the Government. An appropriation of
$50,000 was at once granted and afterwards extended to
$100,000. With this fund the Bureau of Plant Sanita-
tion was quickly organized, with a central office in Ha-
vana. Competent inspectors were assigned to the three
principal ports, where supervision over both imports and
exports is conducted.

Inspectors in each province were installed to investi-
gate the condition of various crops with special attention
given to the Black Fly. Squads of trained men were or-
ganized to combat this pernicious diptera, especially in
the vicinity of the City of Havana, whence the disease
had been brought from Guantanamo. Passengers prob-
ably carried infected mangoes from that city to Vedado,
a suburb of the capital, and from this center the Black
Fly spread over a radius of ten miles around the city,
giving the Bureau of Plant Sanitation an infinite amount
of trouble.

Expert entomologists and trained men were brought
from Florida to aid in the eradication of the enemy. A
systematic pruning, spraying and general campaign
against the Black Fly has been carried on ever since with
more or less success. Badly infected trees have been cut
down and burned, while gangs of men, organized as "fly
fighters," are conveyed in automobiles with their ap-
paratus from one orchard to another, keeping up a con-
tinual struggle against this destructive insect.

In the neighborhood of Guantanamo, where the pest
had secured a foothold, a determined warfare is being
waged. This enemy to several of the best fruits is un-
doubtedly one of the most difficult to contend with that

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 159

has appeared in Cuba, but with the expenditure of time,
money and much effort, it will undoubtedly be eradicated.
The Bureau of Plant Sanitation is under the direction
of Dr. Johnson, a highly trained and energetic official
who has devoted the greater part of his life to the study
of plant enemies and to the successful elimination of the
danger and loss that come from them.

CHAPTER XV
SUGAR

Considered from the point of view of agriculture,
manufactures or commerce, Cane is King in Cuba. The
sugar crop of 1918, amounting to 25,346,000 bags, or
3,620,857 tons, was sold for over $350,000,000; and the
crop of 1919, consisting of 27,769,662 bags, equivalent
to 3,967,094 tons, will probably realize the sum of $500,
000,000. The significance of these facts may be strik-
ingly appreciated by making a simple comparison. The
Cuban sugar crop of 1919 is worth $200 for every man,
woman and child on the island; while the corn crop of
the United States, the most valuable crop of that coun-
try, worth $3,000,000,000, is equal to only $30 per
capita of the population.

The production and consumption of sugar through-
out the world was practically doubled during the fifteen
years preceding the world war. The total production
for 1914 was 18,697,331 tons, of which 8,875,918 tons
came from beets, and 9,821,413 tons from cane. As a
consequence of the war, the world production for 1919
was only 16,354,580 tons, of which only 4,339,856 tons
were obtained from beets, while 12,014,724 tons were ob-
tained from cane. The crop of 1919 shows, therefore, a
gross shortage of 2,342,751 tons compared with that of
1914, without taking into account the normal increase in
consumption indicated by the experience of the fifteen
years before the war; during which period the produc-
tion of cane sugar in Cuba was actually trebled in vol-
ume, showing an average annual increase of approxi-
mately 125,000 tons. The production of sugar in Cuba
in 1914 was 2,597,732 tons, and in 1919 it was 3,967,064
tons; showing an average annual increase of about 275,-

i6o

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 161

000 tons, or approximately seven per cent. These figures,
taken with those of the fifteen preceding years, indicate
that the development of the cane sugar business in Cuba
during the past twenty years, or since the establishment
of the Republic, has been of steady growth and healthy
proportions.

Natural conditions have greatly favored the growing
of sugar cane in Cuba, and the demand for sugar
throughout the world has increased so rapidly that it is
not surprising that this industry has become paramount
in the insular Republic. Begun on a small scale and in
almost indescribably primitive fashion nearly four hun-
dred years ago, as related in the first volume of the His-
tory of Cuba, it was not until near the end of the six-
teenth century that the industry was established on a se-
cure foundation. Even then it received little encourage-
ment from the Spanish Government, and it was not until
the close of the eighteenth and opening of the nineteenth
century that it began to assume the proportions for which
nature had afforded opportunity. With the emancipa-
tion of the island from peninsular rule, however, and the
firm establishment of a government of Cuba by Cubans
and for Cubans, the sugar industry has developed into
proportionately one of the greatest in the world.

A general impression prevails that practically all of
the lands in Cuba are adapted to the profitable cultiva-
tion of sugar cane; that numerous large and desirably
located tracts, suitable in character and sufficient in area
to justify the installation of modern "centrales" or fac-
tories of normal average capacity, are still to be found,
scattered throughout the island and purchasable at nom-
inal cost when compared with their economic value; and
that the annual production of sugar in Cuba can, there-
fore, be profitably increased to the extent even of "sup-
plying the w^hole world with all the sugar it needs."
This impression is, however, erroneous and misleading.
General James H. Wilson, commanding the Military De-
partment of Matanzas and Santa Clara under the first

162 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Government of Intervention, who was esteemed an au-
thority on the subject, reported in 1899 that it was a
mistake to suppose that all Cuban lands were of the
first quality, such as would grow sugar cane continuously
for twenty or thirty years without replanting; that there
were in fact few such estates in Cuba; that most of the
land, whether red or black soil, produces cane for only
twelve or fifteen years, and much of it for from three to
five years only; and that, in the two provinces named,
there was then little new or virgin cane land left, nearly
all of first class quality having at some time been under
cultivation. In this report he did not, however, take into
account the extensive areas of "cienaga" or swamp lands,
which would not be available for cane growing purposes
until drained. Since then it has also been satisfactorily
demonstrated that some of the so-called "savana" land,
which has a "mulatto" or yellow soil, hitherto regarded
as worthless for sugar-producing purposes, can be made
to produce good crops of cane by the judicious applica-
tion of fertilizers and with suitable methods of cultiva-
tion. Sufficient time has not elapsed to determine the
durability of such plantations.

More conservative opinions, entitled to serious and
careful consideration, have been expressed to the effect
that first class new and virgin cane lands, favorably lo-
cated and now available, can still be purchased in Cuba
at figures as low as twenty dollars an acre and in suffi-
cient area to make possible the profitable production of
3,000,000 tons of sugar above the present output, which
approximates 4,000,000 tons;, increasing the total to 7,-
000,000. It does not seem that such great areas could
easily be hidden under a bushel in as small an island as
Cuba, and it is probable that not more than one half of
the total area of the new lands, purchasable at such a
price, would be suitable for cane-growing purposes; in
which case the cost would be raised to approximately
forty dollars an acre for the actual cane-producing area.
If these opinions and claims are accepted, it would seem

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 163

unreasonable to expect that such large areas of land, yet
remaining and now available, could average as good or
prove as economically productive as the lands now ac-
tually under cultivation; and it would not, therefore,
seem unreasonable to assume that to produce 3,000,000
additional tons of sugar would require an area nearly
if not quite as large as that now required to produce the
present annual output of approximately 4,000,000 tons.
It is certainly difficult to believe that the area of land
now producing sugar could be duplicated from the new
and virgin lands now available in Cuba. The recent
purchase of considerable acreages along the line of the
newly constructed Northern Railway by the American
Sugar Refining Company and the Czamikow-Rionda in-
terests, at prices ranging from seven hundred and fifty
to one thousand dollars a caballeria, or about seventy
five dollars an acre, for the actual cane-growing and
sugar-producing area, would seem to emphasize the con-
clusion that first class new and virgin cane lands, yet
remaining and now available in Cuba, are not so plenti-
ful or so cheap as claimed by some and generally sup-
posed.

The total area of Cuba is estimated at a maximum of
about 30,000,000 acres; and it is probable that not more
than ten per cent of this total area, or 3,000,000 acres,
is adapted to and now available for the profitable cultiva-
tion of sugar cane, with sugar at even relatively normal
pre-war average prices. Indeed it is doubtful if even
continuance of the present abnormally high prices for
sugar could greatly enlarge such now available area.
Large tracts of the richest lands in Cuba, favorably con-
ditioned and advantageously located but now covered
by "cienagas" or swamps, can however be effectively and
economically drained and made available for the cultiva-
tion of sugar cane; and such lands when drained should
produce sugar more economically and profitably than
any similar area of land in the island now growing cane.
The largest of these swamps are in the Cauto River val-

164 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

ley, in the vicinity of the Bay of Cardenas, and along the
line of the Roque Canal leading thereto, and in the re-
gion covered by the Cienaga de Zapata. The reclaim-
able area of these swamp lands is estimated at not less
than 750,000 acres.

Putting the present average annual production of cane
in Cuba at 20 long tons, and the average yield of sugar
at 11.25 per cent, or 2.25 tons an acre, and assuming a
gross yearly production of 4,000,000 tons of sugar, indi-
cates that about 35,000,000 tons of cane are grown upon
approximately 1,750,000 acres of land; and allowing
an additional 500,000 acres, to provide for and cover
planting, replanting as pasturage, it would seem that ap-
proximately 2,250,000 acres of the best conditioned and
most favorably located cane lands now available are re-
quired to produce the present output of 4,000,000 tons.
Careful consideration of the subject leads to the con-
clusion that there are not now available in the island
over 500,000 acres of new and virgin lands, upon which
cane can be planted and profitably grown, with sugar
at prices approximating the pre-war ten-year average.
But these additional lands cannot reasonably be expected
to average as good or prove as economically productive
as the lands now actually planted with and growing cane.
It should not be unreasonable to allow, for planting, re-
planting and pasturage, the additional 250,000 acres re-
quired to complete the estimated 3,000,000 acres given as
the probable maximum area adapted to, and now avail-
able for, the profitable cultivation of cane in Cuba ; unless
and until the swamp lands, having an area of about 750,-
000 acres, shall be drained, reclaimed and put under cul-
tivation. Assuming that the additional 500,000 acres
of land now available would yield in the same propor-
tion as the lands now planted and producing, an increase
of only 1,125,000 tons of sugar yearly would result,
which would raise the total annual production to about
5,125,000 tons. Should the swamp lands be reclaimed
and made productive, upon the same basis of calculation

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 165

there would be a further increase of only 1,687,500 tons,
bringing the total production of sugar in Cuba up to a
maximum of only 6,812,500 tons a year, or at most, in
round figures, about 7,000,000 tons. It seems most im-
probable that a larger production could be developed
and permanently maintained, unless through fertiliza-
tion and improved methods of cultivation, including ir-
rigation; and it appears doubtful if such measures would
more than compensate for the natural deterioration of soil
and exhaustion of lands, that will inevitably result from
long continued cultivation; for much of the lands now
under cultivation will not produce for periods longer
than from three to seven or at most ten years.

The Cienaga de Zapata is the largest and most easily
drainable of the swamp areas mentioned. It is a vast
alluvial plain, built up of the washings of the most fer-
tile and durable cane growing lands of Cuba, enriched
by the decomposition of the vegetable growth of un-
counted centuries. It has a total area of 15,307 ca-
ballerias, or 505,154 acres; which is greater than the
sugar-producing area of the Island of Porto Rico, or
that of the Hawaiian Islands; indeed it is nearly as
large as both combined. The net reclaimable area is
not less than 450,000 acres; which is sufficient to pro-
vide cane for thirty "centrales" of 250,000 bags, or fif-
teen of 500,000 bags capacity each; equivalent to an
output of 7,500,000 bags, or' approximately 1,000,000
tons of sugar a year; the production of which would be
effected under a combination of advantageous economic
conditions not found in the production of sugar else-
where in Cuba, if in the world. Chief among these ad-
vantageous conditions are the fertility of the soil, the
extent and compactness of the area of land, its con-
venient and economical accessibility to a deep water port,
and the fact that the entire area can be irrigated with
water from the drainage canals at a maximum lift of not
over ten feet. The drainage of these lands can be ef-
fected entirely by gravity and at a cost not exceeding

166 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

twenty dollars per acre for the net sugar producing area.
Comprehensive surveys have been made for effecting the
drainage of this great territory by well known American
engineers; and a plan providing for the utilization of
the lands, when drained, has been prepared by Mr. R. G.
Ward of New York City, who was one of the chief fac-
tors under Sir William Van Home in the building and
putting into successful operation of the original main
line of the Cuba Railroad, extending from Santa Clara
to Santiago. Under the franchises or concessions con-
trolled by Mr. Ward, the not distant future may, there-
fore, see the present output of sugar in Cuba increased
by approximately one-fourth, from the now neglected
lands of the Cienaga de Zapata.

According to Mr. H. A. Himely, who is a recognized
authority on the subject, 196 "centrales" handled the
crop of 1919, amounting to 27,769,662 bags, or 3,967,-
064 tons of sugar. These "centrales" varied in output,
from a minimum capacity of only 145 to a maximum of
701,768 bags, showing an average of about 142,000.
Hence it is clear that the word "central" conveys no defi-
nite idea of capacity, and constitutes no exact unit of
thought or calculation. Let us, however, assume that
the word applies to a complete modern sugar factory of
250,000 bags yearly capacity, each bag containing 325
pounds of sugar; an output of 81,250,000 pounds. Fac-
tories of such capacity may be installed as single units
or in multiple units. To obtain maximum results it is
necessary that they shall be provided with sufficient areas
of suitable land in one contiguous and reasonably com-
pact body, within easy access of an economical deep wa-
ter port, so that the costs of hauling and delivering the
cane to the mill, and of transporting the sugar and
molasses to the port, or shipside, may be reduced to the
minimum. Now, of the new and virgin cane lands still
remaining and now available in Cuba, there are few
if any now obtainable which answer to these demands;
and it is questionable if there are yet remaining and

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 167

now available in the island new and virgin lands in
tracts of sufficient size and aggregate area to warrant
the installation of more than twenty "centrales," having
a combined yearly capacity of 5,000,000 bags. Indeed
it is believed that it would be difficult if not impossible
to find desirable and economically satisfactory locations
for even so large a number.

Wherever possible, virgin forests are cleared and
planted for cane fields, as the accumulated humus of cen-
turies produces a growth of cane that with care will en-
dure for from five to twenty-five years without replant-
ing. In Oriente cane fields are still producing good
crops which were planted fifty and even sixty years ago.
This method of cane culture is, however, most uneco-
nomical, since the soil in time will certainly become ex-
hausted. No plant responds more quickly to judicious
and generous use of fertilizers than does sugar cane;
and, according to the best authorities, no matter how
rich the soil may be, it pays to fertilize.

In opening up a sugar plantation, the trees are first
felled and the trunks of valuable timber drawn off the
land, while the limbs, brush and other waste materials
are piled and burned. Owing to the previous shade of
the trees, the ground is free from weeds, and but little
preparation of the soil is required.

For the first planting, men with heavy sharp pointed
"jique" sticks, about five feet in length, travel on parallel
lines across the fields, jabbing these stakes into the
ground at intervals of four or five feet. Behind them
follow others, bearing sacks of cane cut into short
pieces, containing one or two joints each, a piece of which
is thrust into each hole, and the earth pressed over it
with the bare foot. From the eyes of these sections of
cane in the rich, moist earth there quickly rise shoots or
sprouts of cane, and under the influence of the heavy
tropical rains that fall during the summer months the
growth is so rapid that the young cane shades the ground
before weeds have time to grow. According to the usual

168 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

custom of the country, the stumps of trees are left to
rot and enrich the soil. Thus in the course of a few
years a plantation is started at comparatively small cost,
from which cane may be cut without replanting for many
years to come.

Where sugar plantations are developed upon "savana"
lands, the rows may be laid out with greater regularity
and cultivated with modern machinery and implements
until the cane has secured sufficient growth. At the ex-
piration of eighteen months from the first planting, the
cane should be ready for the mill. Cutters, with heavy
machetes, go into the fields, seize the stalks of cane with
the left hand, and with one deft blow of the machete
cut them close to the ground. With three or four more
strokes the canes are stripped of their leaves, topped,
cut in halves and thrown into piles, ready to be loaded
upon carts and carried to the mills or railroad stations.

During recent years hand labor in the fields has been
difficult to secure in Cuba, and since the beginning of the
European War the wages of cane cutters have risen from
the usual average of $1.25 to $2.50 and even as high as
$3.00 a day. Cuba has never had a sufficient amount
of resident labor to handle her enormous crops of sugar.
Thousands of men are brought to the Island annually,
from Spain, the Azores, the Canary Islands, Venezuela,
Panama and the West India Islands. Most of these la-
borers return to their homes at the end of the season, as
they can live there in comfort upon the money earned
until the next cane-cutting season. A machine for cut-
ting cane, to do the work of forty men, has been invented
and in 1918 received practical trial, which is said to
have been fairly satisfactory. It is possible that this
and other labor saving machinery will soon be per-
fected so that the large number of field hands now re-
quired may thus be replaced, to some extent, and the
cost of cane culture and cutting correspondingly reduced.

Heavy two wheeled carts, drawn by from four to
eight oxen, are still generally used to convey the cane

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 169

from the fields to the mills or railroad stations. Plow-
ing, also, is done largely with oxen, although these are
being replaced on the more modern and up to date es-
tates by traction engines hauling gang plows, and by
motor driven trucks for the transportation of the cane.
One of the latter, which was first used in 1918, is pro-
vided with several light steel demountable bodies, that
are dropped at convenient places through the cane fields,
where they are loaded and then drawn up again upon
the frame of the truck by the power of the motor. The
load of cane is then carried to the mill or loading sta-
tion, and the empty body brought back to the field for re-
loading. Meanwhile other bodies have been loaded with
cane, and the operation is repeated. Other experiments
are being made with trucks of the ordinary type, mounted
upon low wheels carrying so called caterpillar belts, so
that they may be used in wet weather and on soft ground.
These contrivances have not, however, eliminated the
ox cart, which still hauls from the fields over ninety per
cent of the cane produced in Cuba.

Labor plays an important part in the cost of pro-
ducing sugar in Cuba and largely determines the profits
of the industry. In 1914 the cost of producing a pound
of sugar, in most of the well located and otherwise fav-
orably conditioned mills in Cuba, was estimated at about
two cents ; and in some of the exceptionally favored mills
even this figure left a margin of profit. But with the
rapid rise in wages following the outbreak of the Eu-
ropean War, and the consequent increase of expense of
cultivating, cutting and handling cane, the cost of mak-
ing sugar has become increasingly difficult to determine,
as the wage rate may vary, both from day to day, and
also in the different sections of the island, where labor
may be scarce or plentiful.

The urgent demand for sugar brought about by the
European War caused many fields to be planted with
cane the soils of which were not suited for the purpose.
Mills were also erected at several places in districts not

170 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

favored by nature for sugar production. Later, when
the selling price of sugar was fixed by the Sugar Com-
mission appointed for that purpose, these less fortu-
nately situated mills, compelled as they were to pay prac-
tically double the usual amounts for labor, found little
if any profit remaining at the end of the year's opera-
tions. Those mills favored by fertile lands and good
locations yielded and continue to yield excellent re-
turns upon the capital invested, in spite of the increased
cost of labor.

In Cuba two altogether different methods are employed
for planting, cultivating, cutting and delivering cane to
the mills or loading stations, known, respectively, as the
"Administration" and the "Colono" systems. Under the
Administration system the work is directed by the man-
agement of the enterprise, and all labor and other ex-
penses involved are paid by the owners of the property.
Less than ten per cent of the cane annually produced is
grown and delivered by this system. More than ninety
per cent is, therefore, grown and delivered by the Colono
system, which constitutes the distinctive feature of Cuban
agriculture so far as it relates to the production of sugar.
The system differs from the usual tenant-farming system
in that there is no agreed sharing of the crop or fixed cash
rental paid by the Colono to the landlord, in cases where
the Colono is not himself the proprietor of the land in
question. The system applies alike to lands owned by
the enterprise, privately owned, or leased by the enter-
prise or the Colono; the terms and conditions varying
slightly in each case. By a process of bargaining, based
upon local conditions, the Colono gets from 4^% to
8%, with a probable average of 6)4%, of the weight of
cane grown and delivered, in sugar, or its value in cash.
That is to say, for every 100 pounds of cane grown and
delivered by him he would get an average of 6% pounds
of sugar, or its market value, in cash. Deducting the
6)4 pounds, paid as an average to the Colono, from the

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 171

1154 pounds, given as the average yield of sugar, leaves
only 5 pounds to the enterprise, out of which all expenses
must be paid before profits or dividends can be shewn.
Moreover, under this system, any reduction in the yield
of sugar would fall entirely upon the enterprise until it
reached the 6^4% payable, on an average, to the Colono.
As an illustration, take the crop of 1918 and 1919,
amounting to 4,000,000 tons of sugar; about 2,222,225
tons went to the Colono, to cover the " cost of cane," while
only 1,777,775 tons went to the enterprise to cover all
other expenses and provide for dividends upon the cap-
ital invested: and, should the yield of sugar have fallen
one per cent, equivalent to 355,555 tons, the Colono
would have received the same, while the enterprise would
have received only 1,422,220 tons — and so on, until the
enterprise would get nothing at all, although the earn-
ings of the Colono would remain unchanged.

The system is, therefore, well named, for the Colono
receives first consideration, while the enterprise carries
the burden and accepts all risks; against which the ad-
vantage of a possible abnormal yield is certainly an in-
adequate compensation. Furthermore the mill owners
generally assume the burden and risk of "financing"
their Colonos ; frequently advancing credits of from three
to five times the amounts contributed by the Colono him-
self. However, with all its disadvantages, the Colono
system is likely to prevail for some time to come, as it
is doubtful if, under existing labor conditions, the large
tonnage of cane now required could otherwise be obtained.
The "guajiro," or cane-cutter, is the autocrat of the situa-
tion; he knows he is scarce and, therefore, believes that
he is indispensable. As a result, his efficiency has fal-
len from three and a quarter to two and a quarter tons
a day; while his earnings, on a tonnage basis, have risen
from 150% to 200%, when compared with pre-war con-
ditions. The only solution for this unfavorable situa-
tion seems to depend upon the provision of continuous

172 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

employment for labor, and the effecting of a rearrange-
ment of the Colono system so as to permit of the per-
formance of all heavy work, such as plowing and prepar-
ing the lands for planting, and hauling the cane from
the fields, by the owners of the sugar-producing prop-
erties. They can afford to equip their establishments
for the doing of such work upon a large and comprehen-
sive-scale, that will accomplish an indirect reduction in
the present cost of producing and delivering cane to the
mills, which, while increasing the profits of the Mill
Owners, will not reduce the net earnings of labor or of the
Colono.

Natural conditions combine to favor the production of
sugar in Cuba. Ample rains, so essential to the growth
of cane, fall during the summer season while the cane
is growing; and during the rest of the year the weather
is sufficiently cool to bring about the complete ripening
of the cane and the formation of its sucrose content, and
to make possible the easy harvesting and handling of the
cane in the fields, and its economical conveyance to the
"centrales." Careless and uneconomical methods have
heretofore prevailed in the treatment of soils and in the
cultivation of cane, which will undoubtedly be remedied
in due course of time.

Under a more intensive system of cultivation, assisted
by a better selection of seed, and the judicious and gen-
erous employment of fertilizers, including irrigation,
wherever practicable, the position of Cuba as the largest
and most economical producer of sugar in the world will
be permanently assured.

No account of the sugar industry of Cuba would be
complete which failed to make special mention of some
of the most notable enterprises now existing in that
Island; or of the men mainly responsible for their in-
ception and development. Taking them in the order
of their productive capacity, the following list covers
the most important of such properties :

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 173

Mills Bags Percentage

Controlled Produced of Crops

Cuba Cane Sugar Corp 17 4,319,189 15.59

Cuban-American Sugar Co 6 1,938,368 7.00

Rionda Properties 7 1,856,563 6.60

United Fruit Co 2 776,045 2.80

Atkins Properties 4 736,043 2.66

Pote Rodriguez Properties 2 625,054 229

West Indies Sugar Finance Corp.. 3 619,204 2.23

Gomez-Mena Properties 2 605,000 2.19

Cuba Company Properties 2 587,800 2.12

Mendoza-Cunagxia Property 1 452,583 1.64

The Cuba Cane Sugar Corporation was organized
in 1915, to acquire and operate eighteen sugar prop-
erties upon which options had been obtained by Don
Manuel Rionda, head of the long established sugar brok-
erage firm called the Czamikow-Rionda Company, of
New York City; who, though for many years a resident
of the United States, still clings to his Spanish citizen-
ship. Shortly after the organization of the corporation
another large sugar property, including a railroad lead-
ing to a port on the Caribbean Sea, was acquired; but
soon thereafter one of the original properties purchased
was sold and another was dismantled, so that seventeen
is the actual number now OA^Tied and operated by the
corporation. Mr. Rionda deserved and received great
credit for having negotiated, organized and launched the
Cuba Cane Sugar Corporation, as and when he did ; and
the great success which almost immediately attended its
consummation brought him great prestige and made him
at once a dominant factor in and authority upon matters
relating to sugar. It is immaterial that the eminence
achieved was due largely, if not entirely, to the succes-
sive rises in the price of sugar, which applied especially
to the crops of 1916, 1917 and 1919; for nothing suc-
ceeds like success.

The Cuba Cane Sugar Corporation was organized and
financed upon the strength of a letter written by Mr.
Rionda to Messrs. J. & W. Seligman & Co., of New
York, on December 16, 1915, in which he made an "esti-

174 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

mate that, with sugar at the lowest, say 2 cents per
pound, the Corporation would earn at least 1^^ times
the dividends on its preferred stock." The f. o. b. pro-
duction cost for the crop of 1915 and 1916, immediately
following, was reported as 2.748 cents per pound, not-
withstanding the fact that the sellers of the properties
acquired had paid the so-called dead season expenses.
It is clear, therefore, that, "with sugar at its lowest, say
2 cents per pound," the first year's operations of the
corporation would have shown an operating deficit of
0.748 cents per pound, instead of earning "at least 1^4
times the dividends on its preferred stock," as estimated
by Mr. Rionda. The large gross operating profits re-
ported for the first year's operations were, therefore, due
in part to the exclusion of the dead season expenses, but
mainly to the rise in price of sugar, from 2 cents per
pound in July, 1915, to an average of 4.112 cents per
pound during the crop season of 1915 and 1916. Such
profits might possibly be creditable to Mr. Rionda's busi-
ness acumen, but it cannot be justly claimed that they
were due to the infallibility of his original estimates, or
to his demonstrated administrative capacity for the suc-
cessful handling of so large and complex an enterprise,
the physical conditions of which make administrative co-
ordination extremely difficult and expensive. Neverthe-
less, he has profited by the experience of succeeding years,
and shows an increasing capacity for coping with the
numerous and complicated problems involved in the ad-
ministration of the largest sugar producing enterprise in
the world; and it is generally conceded that the abnor-
mally large profits now earned by the corporation, as the
result of further rises in the price of sugar, will provide
for the readjustments of and cover the improvements to
the various properties comprised, that are necessary to
put the property, taken as a whole, upon an absolutely
satisfactory and permanently impregnable footing, physi-
cally and financially. This goal is known to accord with
Mr. Rionda's ardent desire, as constituting the consum-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 175

mation of his most commendable aspirations, and the
crowning glory of his achievements. It is intimated
that he will then, and not until then, retire from the field
of his activities, in which he has played so conspicuous a
role.

The Cuban-American Sugar Company was incorpor-
ated in 1906, as a holding company, to acquire the en-
tire capital stock of five independent companies then
engaged in the cultivation of sugar cane and the manu-
facture of raw and refined sugar in the Island of Cuba.
Other properties were acquired in 1908, and again in
1910, including a refinery located at Gramercy, Louis-
iana. On September 30, 1918, the Company owTied
504,391 acres of land, of which 157,000 acres or 31
per cent were planted with cane. It also leased 16,713
acres of land, of which 7,825 acres or 47 per cent were
under cultivation. Thus there was a total of owned and
leased lands of 521,104 acres, of which 164,825 acres
or 32 per cent were producing cane. The Cuban- Ameri-
can Sugar Company was for years the largest sugar pro-
ducing enterprise in the world, until the organization of
the Cuba Cane Sugar Corporation, which alone out-
ranks it. It has grown out of the Chaparra Sugar Com-
pany, now one of its subsidiary companies; which was
organized shortly after the conclusion of the Spanish-
American War by State Senator Robert B. Hawley, of
Galveston, Texas, who at the very beginning employed as
his confidential representative and manager of the Cha-
parra property General Mario G. Menocal, now Presi-
dent of the Cuban Republic but still regarded as the
actual General Manager of the Cuban-American Com-
pany's properties in Cuba. The capabilities, enterprise
and industry of these two men, and the warm personal
as well as cordial business relations established and main-
tained between them, made it not only possible but easy
for each to supplement and co-operate with the other ; and
to those conditions the great success of the Cuban-Ameri-
can Sugar Company is attributed. While it is true that

176 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

this Company, like all others, has profited greatly by the
high prices resulting from the War, it is also true that the
foundations of the success that has been attained by it
were laid by the courageous enterprise and perfected by
the untiring industry of Mr. Hawley, made effective in
Cuba by the energetic and loyal co-operation of General
Menocal and his large following of patriotic Cuban
compadres, without whose assistance no sugar produc-
ing enterprise in Cuba has ever been or will ever be a
complete success. Indeed it is largely because of the
wise recognition of and sympathetic relations established
with the Cuban people by Mr. Hawley that the securi-
ties of the Cuban-American Sugar Company are quoted
in the markets of the world at higher figures than those
of any other sugar producing enterprise.

The Rionda Properties are seven in number, compris-
ing five estates which are in effect the personal property
of Don Manuel Rionda, his relatives and family asso-
ciates, and two others in which he is the controlling fac-
tor. All of these properties are operated as separate and
independent units, or as individual or one-man enter-
prises, in the development and supervision of which few
have equaled and none have been more successful than
Mr. Rionda. Part of this success has been due to the
fact that during the creative period these independent
properties have been as a rule under the management of
members of his own family, prominent among whom were
two nephews, Don Leandro J. Rionda and Don Jose B.
Rionda, both capable men, who grew up with the prop-
erties they came to administer, thus acquiring that close
personal touch with employees and conditions which is
so desirable an asset, but which is unfortunately lost
to the larger enterprises, and who rendered to their uncle,
Don Manuel, the loyalty he had inspired in them and so
richly deserved at their hands. In such circumstances
it is not to be wondered at that success of a high order
has attended their co-operative efforts. Mr. Rionda has
no children of his own and it is probably for this rea-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 177

son that so close an affection and so intimate business
relations exist between him and his two nephews and the
fine sugar producing properties they have developed un-
der his auspices.

The United Fruit Company entered the sugar business
through an accident; and yet it is the only company that
combines all the essentials for producing, transporting
and refining sugar. Shortly after the conclusion of the
Spanish-American War, the Company acquired the
Banes property, and also a large tract of land on the
Bahia de Nipe, now kno\^Ti as the Nipe Bay property,
upon both of which bananas were planted on an exten-
sive scale. But it was soon discovered that atmospheric
conditions in that part of Cuba were unfavorable to the
successful production of bananas. Therefore in order
to utilize the lands which it had acquired the Company
planted them with cane and began the production of
sugar; it was of course already a transportation com-
pany; and now it has built a refinery in Boston, to which
its raw sugar is shipped from Cuba on its own steamers,
and there refined; thus completing the cycle of opera-
tions from planting the cane to marketing the product.
No other sugar producing enterprise has ever gone into
the business upon such comprehensive lines. Such how-
ever are the lines upon which ever}i:hing undertaken by
Andrew W. Preston and Minor C. Keith, the directing
geniuses of that company, is planned and projected;
which largely accounts for the enviable success that has
always crowned their efforts.

The Atkins Properties comprise one property be-
longing to Mr. Edward F. Atkins, of Boston, who is re-
puted to be the first American to have acquired a sugar
property in Cuba, and three others belonging to or con-
trolled by the Punta Alegre Sugar Company, the most
active personality connected with which is Mr. Robert
W. Atkins. The Punta Alegre Sugar Company was in-
corporated, in 1915, as a holding and operating com-
pany, engaged in the business of owning and operating

178 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

sugar plantations and factories in the Island of Cuba.
It owns and controls 40,831 acres and leases 25,717
acres of land; and is reported to be doubling the ca-
pacity of its central at Punta Alegre. Credit for the
suggestion and initiative that resulted in the combina-
tion of these properties and the organization of this Com-
pany is generally given to Mr. Ezra J. Barker (Ray
Barker) of New York, and Major Maude, a retired
British Army officer who for many years has resided
in Cuba, The prestige and financial standing of the
officers and directors of and of the capitalists interested
in the Punta Alegre Sugar Company and the Atkins
Properties is sufficient to guarantee the successful opera-
tion of these properties.

The Pote Rodriguez Properties are the personal prop-
erty of Don Jose Lopez Rodriguez, who is a Spanish sub-
ject residing in Havana, and known to every body as
"Pote." Some say that this nickname is an abbrevia-
tion of the word "poder," or "power." Certain it is that
Don Pote Rodriguez is, in fact, a human dynamo, the
very embodiment of power and push. Beginning as a
book-seller, stationer and printer, on Obispo Street, Ha-
vana, where he still conducts that business and makes
his headquarters, he has, in recent years, acquired a
controlling interest in the Banco Nacional de Cuba, a
corporation having a capital of $8,000,000; he has also
invested several millions of dollars in an elaborate sub-
urban annex to the city of Havana, including a large
Portland cement plant; he has contracted to dig the
Roque Canal, projected to drain the Jovellanos Flats
and part of the Cienaga or swamp lands near Cardenas;
and he is the sole owner of the Central Espaiia, the pride
of his heart, upon which he has worked day and night
for years, hoping to make it the largest producing sugar
"central" in Cuba. But despite his efforts three other
"centrales" surpass it in productive capacity.

The West Indies Sugar Finance Corporation is a pro-
tege if not actually a subsidiary of the B. H. Howell-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 179

Cuban-American-National Sugar Refining Company
group, which under the intelligent and experienced di-
rection of Mr. H. Edson, of New York City, has come
to be a factor of prime importance in the sugar business
in Cuba. It is claimed that the tonnage of cane ob-
tained from the lands of one of the properties owned by
this Corporation in the season of 1918-19 averaged
higher than that of any other sugar producing property
in Cuba; and that the average yield of sugar was as
good as the best. The splendidly economical milling
plants at Tinguaro, Chaparra and Delicias w^ere in-
stalled under Mr. Edson's direction, and it is reasonable
to assume that the mills of his own corporation are
equally efficient. Few men interested in the sugar busi-
ness in Cuba have had a broader, more varied or more
useful experience; and there are none whose judgment
as to the value of cane lands and sugar properties is
more to be relied upon.

The Gomez-Mena Properties were united and built
up by Don Antonio Gomez-Mena, a Spanish subject,
who has resided for many years in Cuba, w^here he de-
veloped a large mercantile business in the city of Ha-
vana; out of the profits of which he began the building
of the well known Manzana de Gomez-Mena, or Gomez-
Mena Block, which has recently been completed by his
heirs; and also acquired and developed the two sugar
properties with which his name is identified, and w'hich
are now owTied by his son, Don Andres Gomez-Mena.
These "centrales," known as Amistad and Gomez-Mena,
and located respectively near Guines and San Nicolas,
in the southeastern part of the Province of Havana are of
special interest since on them more clearly than else-
where in Cuba are practically demonstrated the benefits
to be derived from irrigation and the value of cienaga or
swamp lands when drained and reclaimed. When Seiior
Gomez-Mena purchased the properties they were re-
garded as of little value, because a large part of the area
consisted of swamp lands, carrying an excess of water,

180 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

while the balance was composed of higher lands of a
character so dry as to be practically valueless for pur-
poses of agriculture. It was rightly reasoned that both
of these difficulties could be overcome. So the wet lands
were drained and the dry lands were irrigated; with the
result that these two properties are now regarded as
among the most profitably productive sugar estates in
Cuba; relative areas, of course, being taken into con-
sideration.

The Cuba Company Properties were developed by Sir
William C. Van Home for the purpose primarily of pro-
viding traffic for the newly constructed Cuba Railroad;
which fact accounts for their location along that line,
remote from shipping ports, at a time when more desir-
able locations could have been acquired, looked at from
the point of view of economical sugar production. Nev-
ertheless both of these properties seem to have paid well
upon the capital invested in them, while at the same time
contributing handsomely to swell the revenues of the
Cuba Railroad ; all of which speaks well for the sagacity
and enterprise of Sir William Van Home, and increases
the credit to which he is justly entitled.

The Mendoza Cunagua Property differs from all other
sugar producing properties in Cuba in that it was pro-
jected, developed and built up as a complete whole, from
start to finish, by a group of Cuban capitalists domin-
ated by members of the well knowoi and highly respected
Mendoza familv; the most active personalities in the en-
terprise being Don Antonio and Don Miguel Mendoza.
Considered in every feature and detail, the Central
Cunagua Property is probably the most complete and
most perfectly appointed and equipped cane growing
and sugar producing establishment that was ever created
as the result of one continuous and comprehensive effort ;
Don Antonio Mendoza having the credit for its accom-
plishment. At Cunagua more than any where else in
connection with the growing of cane and the production
of sugar does the human equation receive prime con-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 181

sideration, as compared with the beasts of the field, or
the machinery of the factory; all of which are, however,
looked upon as assets and are well cared for. So well
and thoroughly, indeed, was all of this planned and ac-
complished, and so promisingly did everything point to-
wards a future rich with reward, honestly earned and
well deserved by the creators of this splendid property,
that it is in a sense regrettable to have to add that the
Central Cunagua Property has recently been sold to the
American Sugar Refining Company of New York City;
which company has also acquired additional lands in its
vicinity, upon which a duplicate of the Central Cunagua
will be installed.

There are many other meritorious cane growing and
sugar producing enterprises in Cuba, that are deserving
of consideration; but which cannot be satisfactorily de-
scribed within the space here available for the purpose.
It must suffice to add that of the total sugar produced in
Cuba during the season of 1918 and 1919, amounting
to 27,747,704 bags, 13,587,733 bags or 49.04 per cent
w^ere produced by sixty-five properties owned or con-
trolled by American interests, and 14,159,971 bags or
50.96 per cent were produced by one hundred and thirty-
one properties o^\^led or controlled by Cuban and Eu-
ropean interests. It may not be amiss also to call at-
tention to the fact that the sugar crop of Cuba, for the
season of 1918-19 amounted to nearly one-fourth of the
total sugar production of the world. If allowance is
made for the normal average increase in consumption of
sugar, as indicated by experience during the fifteen years
just before the European War, the world's production of
sugar for the year 1919 should have been 21,813,551
tons, while in fact it amounted to only 16,354,580 tons.
This shows that the actual net shortage in the world's
production of sugar amounted to 5,458,971 tons instead
of the 2,342,751 tons commonly mentioned, the latter
figures representing only the difference in production
between the years 1914 and 1919. This indicates that

182 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

there are no grounds for apprehension on the part of
anyone contemplating investing in desirable property in
Cuba, as to the world's production overtaking the world's
consumption of sugar for a number of years to come.
The economic position of Cuba as the premier sugar-
producing country of the world may therefore be con-
fidently regarded as secure.

CHAPTER XVI
TOBACCO

This strangely hypnotic leaf of the night-shade fam-
ily seems to have originated in the Western Hemisphere,
and that variety familiar to commerce, known as the
Nicotina Tabacum, was in popular use among the abo-
rigines of the West Indies, Mexico and the greater part
at least of the North American continent, probably for
thousands of years before the written history of man
began.

Christopher Columbus and his followers noted the fact
that the Indians of Cuba wrapped the clippings from
peculiar aromatic dark brown leaves in little squares of
corn husks, which they rolled and smoked with apparent
pleasure. It did not take long for the Spanish conquer-
ors to fall into the habit of the kindly natives who received
them and who almost immediately offered them cigars in
token of welcome to the Island of Cuba.

Tobacco was grown at that time in nearly all parts of
the Island. Rumor soon circulated, however, that the
best weed was grown only in the extreme western end of
Cuba, known today as the Vuelta Abajo, or down turn,
and the report proved true, since only in Pinar del Rio
is grown the superior quality of leaf that has made that
section famous throughout the world. Neither has care-
ful study or analysis of soils betrayed the secret of this
superiority over tobacco grown in other parts of the
Island.

The choice tobaccos of the Vuelta Abajo are grown in a
restricted section of which the City of Pinar del Rio is
the approximate center. The whole area of the Vuelta
will not exceed thirty miles from east to west, nor is it

183

184 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

more than ten miles from north to south. And even in
this favored district, the really choice tobacco is grown in
little "vegas," or fields, comprising usually a small oasis
from three to fifteen acres in extent, in which a very high
grade of tobacco may be grown, while adjoining lands,
similar in appearance, but lacking in the one magic qual-
ity which produces the desired aroma and flavor, are
largely wanting. The prices obtained for the tobacco
grown on these favored "vegas" seem almost incredible.
A bale of this tobacco, weighing between 80 and 90
pounds, will readily sell at from $100 to $500.

When one considers that with the use of cheese cloth
as a protection from cut worms, from eight to twelve bales
are taken from an acre, valued at $200 each, which
means a return of approximately $2,000 per acre for each
crop, the importance of the tobacco crop in Vuelta Abajo
may be appreciated.

The value of an acre of any land that will return
$2,000 annually to the grower, at 10% interest on in-
vested capital, would be $20,000. It is needless to state
that this price for tobacco lands, even in Vuelta Abajo,
does not prevail. It is nevertheless true, that many first-
class vegas of tobacco are held at prices that place them
practically beyond the reach of purchase.

In spite of the undoubted profits of tobacco growing in
Cuba, the condition of the "veguero," as far as financial
prosperity is concerned, is far from enviable. As a rule,
while knowing how to grow tobacco, he does not know,
nor does he care to learn, how to grow anything else. All
of his energy and time are devoted to the seed bed, the
transplanting, the cultivation, cutting, and curing of the
leaf. He seldom owns the soil on which the crop is
grown, and usually prefers to be a "Partidario" or grower
of tobacco on shares with the owner.

The owner furnishes the land, the seed, the working
animals and what is more important still, credit at the
nearest grocery or general store, on which the family
lives during the entire year, and for which the interest

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 185

paid in one form or another constitutes a burden from
which the "veguero" seldom escapes. The latter fur-
nishes the labor, time, care and knowledge necessary to
bring the crop to a successful termination. When the
tobacco is sold, the "veguero" receives his part of the re-
turns, pays his bills, and usually invests the remainder
in lottery tickets and fighting chickens.

The life of the tobacco plant, from transplanting to the
time in which it is due and removed from the fields, is
only about ninety days. The selected seed is sown in
land on which brush or leaves have been previously
burned, destroying injurious insect life, while furnishing
the required potash to the soil. The seed beds are known
as "semilleros" and are carefully tended until the plants
are five or six inches in height, when they are removed
and carried to the "vega," previously prepared with an
abundance of stable manure or other fertilizer, well rotted
and plowed in. In three months' time, with care and
careful cultivation, a crop will be ready for cutting and
curing.

The semilleros are prepared usually during the latter
part of September, or early October, when the fall show-
ers are still plentiful. By the first of January, if the
plants have had sufficient growth and the weather is
cool, clear and dry, the leaves are cut in pairs, either
united to the stalk or connected by needle and heavy
thread, and afterwards strung over a bamboo or light
pole known as a "cuje."

To each "cuje" are assigned two hundred and twenty
pairs of leaves. These are carried to the tobacco barns,
with sides built usually of rough board slabs, above which
is a tall sharp roof, made from the leaves of the guana
palm. Only one or two openings are placed in each to-
bacco bam to admit the required amount of air, while the
tobacco, still supported on poles, goes through a process
of curing, which the experienced "veguero" watches with
care.

At the proper time the crop is removed from the poles

186 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

and done up in "mantules" or bundles, which are after-
wards delivered to the "escogidos," where tobacco experts
select and grade the leaves in accordance with their size
and condition. After this they are baled and incased in
"yagua," a name given to the broad, tough base of the
royal palm leaves, and sent to Havana or other central
mart for sale. Tobacco buyers from all over the world
come to Havana every fall to purchase their supplies
of raw material for manufacture into cigars and ciga-
rettes. •

Excellent tobacco is grown also in the Valley of Vinales,
and may be successfully cultivated in nearly all of the
valleys, pockets and basins that lie in the mountains of
Western and Northern Pinar del Rio. This tobacco as
a rule is graded in quality and price a little below that
of the choice Vuelta Abajo center.

Along the line of the Western Railroad, extending east
from Consolacion del Sur to Artemisa, tobacco is also
grown on the rolling lands and among the foothills that
lie between the railroad and the southern edge of the
Organ Mountains. This section, some fifty miles in
length, with an average width of five or six miles, in
which tobacco forms quite an important product, is known
as the Semi-Vuelta or Partido district. Its leaf, however,
brings in the open market only about half the sum re-
ceived for the Vuelta Abajo. Nevertheless, at all points
in this section where irrigation is possible, the culture of
tobacco, especially when grown under cheese cloth, is
profitable.

Again, along the banks of several rivers south and east
of the City of Pinar del Rio, especially along the Rio
Hondo, a very good quality of tobacco is grown in the
sandy lands rendered fertile by frequent overflow of these
streams in the rainy season as they pass through the
level lands of the southern plains.

The chief enemies of the tobacco plant are some five
or six varieties of worms that cut and eat the leaves.
The larvae are hatched from the eggs of different kinds

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 187

of moths that hover over the tobacco fields at night.
Some are hatched from egg deposits on the plant itself,
and at once begin eating the leaf, while others enter the
ground during the day, coming out during the evening to
feed, and no field unless protected by cheese cloth, or
carefully watched by the patient veguero, can escape
serious damage or complete destruction from these ene-
mies of tobacco. It is a common thing at sundown to
see the father, mother and all members of the family big
enough to walk, down on hands and knees, hunting and
killing tobacco worms. On bright moonlight nights, the
worm hunt is carried on assiduously, and in the early
hours of dawn the veguero and his family, if the crop is
to be a success, must be up like the early bird and after
the worm, otherwise there will be nothing to sell at the
end of the season.

Even with the greatest care, the worms will take a
pretty heavy toll out of almost any field, and to save this
loss, the system of covering tobacco fields with cheese
cloth was introduced into Cuba from the State of Florida,
some twenty years ago. Posts, or comparatively slender
poles, are planted through the field at regular intervals,
usually sixteen feet apart. From the tops of these, gal-
vanized wire is strung from pole to pole, in squares,
while over this is spread a specially manufactured cheese
cloth or tobacco cloth, usually woven in strips of a width
convenient to fit the distance between the poles. The
seams are caught together with sail needles and cord,
making a complete canopy that not only covers the field
but has side wdls dropping from the white roof to the
ground below. Screen doors or gates are built in the
side walls, so that mules with cultivators may pass
through and work under these great white canopies, which
protect the growing plants from the cut worm and save
the poor old veguero and his family from the bane of
their lives. The cost of poles, wire and covering cloth,
under normal conditions, is about $300 per acre, and
when to this are added several carloads of manure or

188 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

other fertilizer, the expense of covering, fertilizing, culti-
vating and caring for an acre of tobacco will easily reach
$500, whence the deduction that tobacco crops must bring
a good price in Cuba is evident.

As a result of these huge tent-like canopies, that fre-
quently cover hundreds of acres, every leaf is perfect, and
if of sufficient size and fineness, may be used as a wrapper.
When one takes into consideration the fact that a "cuje,"
or 220 pairs of leaves strung on a pole, is worth from
$4 to $5, and that the same leaves when perforated by
worms, can be used only as cigar fillers, worth from 75^
to $1.35 per "cuje," the advantage of cheese cloth cover-
ing to a tobacco field becomes evident. Owing to lack
of capital, however, the small native farmer usually is
compelled to do without cheese cloth, and to rely upon the
laborious efforts of himself and his family, to keep the
worm pest from absolutely ruining his crop.

The tobacco industry at the present time commercially
ranks next to sugar. The total value of the crop in 1917
approximated $50,000,000, of which $30,000,000 was
exported to foreign countries. Of the exportations of
that year, the largest item consisted of the leaf itself,
packed in bales numbering 291,618, valued at $19,169,-
455; cigars, 111,909,685 valued at $9,548,933; ciga-
rettes, 12,047,530 packages, valued at $406,208; pica-
dura or smoking tobacco, 261,461 kilos, valued at $251,-
874. There were 258,994,800 cigars during the same
year consumed in Cuba, with an approximate value of
$12,000,000; of cigarettes, 355,942,855 packages, valued
at $7,830,742; and of picadura, 393,833 pounds valued
at $ 1 9 6 , 7 1 9 . During the four years inclusive from 1913
to 1917 the value of exported tobacco increased a little
over $6,000,000, while domestic consumption increased
about one-half or $3,000,000.

In the various factories of cigars and cigarettes of Ha-
vana, some 18,000 men and 7,000 women are employed.
In other sections of the Island, outside of the capital,
some 16,000 men and 13,000 women are engaged in the

THE HISTORY OF CUBA

189

manufacture of cigars and cigarettes, making a total of
34,000 men and 20,000 women employed in the tobacco
industry, aside from those who are engaged in tobacco
cultivation in the fields of the various provinces.

CHAPTER XVII
HENEQUEN

Next to the "Manila hemp" of the Philippines, which
is really a variety of the banana, the henequen of Yuca-
tan is probably the most important cordage plant in the
world. The name henequen is of Aztec origin, and the
plant itself, a variety of the agave or century plant fam-
ily, is indigenous to Yucatan, whence it has been intro-
duced not only into other sections of Mexico but also into
Cuba, Central America and the west coast of South Amer-
ica. No satisfactory substitute has been found for hene-
quen in the manufacturing of binder twine, so essential
to the harvesting of the big grain crops in the Western
States of America.

Revolutions in Mexico following the overthrow of
Porfirio Diaz succeeded for a time at least in paralyzing
if not destroying the sisal industry that had made Yuca-
tan celebrated throughout the world and had caused
Merida to be known as a city of millionaires ; and shortly
before the beginning of the great European War, men
who had devoted their lives to henequen culture and who
feared that Mexico could no longer be relied on for this
product, began to look over the Cuban field for oppor-
tunity for the more extensive cultivation of the plant.

A superficial survey convinced them that large areas of
soft lime rock land, covered with a thin layer of rich red
soil, furnishing all the elements essential to the successful
growth of henequen, were to be had in Cuba. Similar
soils are found in Yucatan, where the average annual
rainfall and general climatic conditions are so nearly like
those of Cuba that it is fairly to be assumed that a crop
which will do well in the one land will also flourish in
the other. In consequence, large areas, in which Cuban,

190

:/[00 3HT

Ti^CTS, sdt c'l Rah-
-vcTq rri =hr

ft Off J ^o 9a0

jO [u^iJjjBdd sdi

;'t vfao rfpuodJfA

?89n2ix)ibofnfnoo

foii

THE GOMEZ BUILDING

One of the finest business buildings in Havana is the great
Gomez Building, which occupies an entire block fronting upon
the beautiful Central Park and reached by way of the Prado.
Although only five stories in height, it vies in appearance and
commodiousness with the best business buildings in any American
city. Its site was well chosen for the display of its handsome
architecture and commanding proportions, and it stands in prox-
imity to the National Theatre and other noteworthy structures.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 191

Spanish and American capitalists are interested, have
been planted with henequen in Cuba.

The first planting on a large scale was done by the
Carranza Brothers, of Havana, just south of the city of
Matanzas, about twenty years ago; Don Luis Carranza
having married a daughter of Don Olegario Molino, of
Yucatan, and thus having become interested in the char-
acteristic industry of the latter country. A company of
Germans afterward purchased the property and close by
the railroad station erected a very complete plant for
the decortication of the henequen and the manufacture of
its fibre into rope and cordage of all sizes, from binder
twine to twelve-inch cables. From this establishment
for years the Cuban demand was chiefly supplied.

Shortly after Cuba, in 1917, followed the United
States in declaring war against Germany, the Spanish
Bank of Havana purchased this property from the own-
ers, and at once increased its capital stock to six millions
of dollars; two and a half million preferred and three
and a half million common stock. At the present time
the estate consists of three plantations on which henequen
is grown, located at Matanzas, Ytabo and Nuevitas, with
a total area of 120 caballerias or 4,000 acres of land.
It is said that owing to the demands of the European War,
and the rise of the price from 7^ to \9y26 per pound,
the net returns of the Matanzas Cordage Company the
first year after purchasing the estate amounted to
$800,000.

The International Harvester Company of the United
States has purchased a tract of 3,300 acres of excellent
henequen land near the city of Cardenas, on the north
coast of the province of Matanzas, for experiment and
demonstration, and under the direction of Yucatecos
familiar with the industry has planted it in henequen.
This action was taken by this company largely because
of the uncertain and unsatisfactory conditions of the
henequen industry in Yucatan, caused by Mexican revo-
ultions and the arbitrary conduct of Mexican officials.

192 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

In the year 1916, 444,400,000 pounds of henequen were
exported from the Gulf ports of Mexico and sold almost
entirely in the United States, at 15^ per pound, since
which time the price has risen to 19 3^^ per pound. This
unprecedented figure was brought about by the practical
seizure of the Yucatan crop by ex-Governor Alvarado,
who allowed the actual growers only 7^ per pound for
the sisal, he appropriating the difference between that
and the market price in New York-
Twenty more caballerias or 666 acres of henequen are
owned by independent parties in the neighborhood of
Nuevitas, on the north coast of the Province of Camaguey.
The Director-General of Posts and Telegraph, Colonel
Charles Hernandez, with a few associates, has purchased
175,000 acres along the southern shore of the Little Za-
pata, that forms the extreme western end of Pinar del
Rio. It is proposed to establish here large plantations
of henequen, that will give employment to many natives
of the tobacco district who are now out of work during
some seasons of the year.

The City of Cardenas, on the north coast, promises soon
to become another great henequen center, and the traveler
riding west over the main automobile drive leading out
of Cardenas may view a panorama of growing henequen
spread out on both sides of the road as far as the eye can
reach. The peculiar bluish green of this plant growth,
dotted with royal palms, adds an odd color effect to the
landscape, not easily forgotten.

Putting the maximum annual production of henequen
or sisal hemp in Yucatan at 1,200,000 bales, of 400
pounds to the bale, and assuming an average yield of
three bales per acre, indicates that about 400,000 acres
of land are actually producing hemp in that country ; and
allowing for a margin of twenty five per cent of such area,
to cover and provide for depletion and propagation, it
would seem that about 500,000 acres of land is the ap-
proximate area now actually planted with and growing
henequen on that peninsula. These statements are made

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 193

to justify the calling of attention to the fact that large
areas of more or less flat, rocky lands exist in various
localities throughout the island of Cuba, notably in
the western extremity of the Province of Pinar del Rio,
along the north coast from the city of Matanzas to the
Bahia de Cardenas, on the Cayos and, at intervals, along
the north coast from Caibarien to the Bay of Nipe, and
especially along the Caribbean Coast, in the vicinity of
the Cienaga de Zapata ; all of which lands are possessed
of the same physical characteristics, and are subject to
the same climatic conditions that apply to the lands in
Yucatan now planted with henequen and at the present
time successfully producing sisal hemp. The aggregate
of these several areas of henequen lands is conservatively
estimated at not less than 1,000,000 acres: or double the
area now planted with henequen in Yucatan.

About 9,000 acres of these Cuban lands are now actu-
ally planted with and successfully growing henequen;
and about 5,000 acres are now producing sisal hemp
which in quantity and quality compares favorably with
the product of the best henequen lands in Yucatan. The
results obtained from these lands now actually planted
and producing are conclusive as to the results that could
be obtained if other and larger areas of such lands should
be planted with henequen.

Furthermore a large part of these Cuban henequen
lands are so level and have such uniform, unbroken sur-
faces that, at an expense less than that involved in pre-
paring the henequen lands of Yucatan, they could be put
in condition to be kept clean mainly by motor-driven
mowing machinery, instead of the enormously expensive
man-power machete system employed upon the rougher
lands of Yucatan. In addition to such advantages these
rocky areas either comprise, or are margined by, large
areas of rich land capable of producing many important
items required for human sustenance; while in Yucatan
everything needed to sustain human life has to be im-
ported.

194 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Finally, when consideration is given to the fact that
sugar cane must be cut during the dry season, while
henequen can be cut and defibered more advantageously
during the wet season, it will readily be seen that the co-
ordination of these two operations, whenever possible,
will tend to solve and favorably determine the problem
and cost of labor involved in the production of both
sugar and hemp. Administration expenses would also
be reduced by such co-ordination. These several advan-
tages should, therefore, contribute to make Cuba an active
competitor with Yucatan for the sisal hemp business,
within the near future. The plan projected by R. G.
Ward for the drainage and development of the lands
contained in the Cienaga de Zapata, already mentioned
in a preceding chapter of this volume, contemplates the
co-ordination of the sugar and hemp industries upon a
scale so large and comprehensive as to merit great suc-
cess. The consummation of such an enterprise should
make a definitely favorable and permanent impression
upon the future of the two industries involved. With a
proper combination of capital and enterprise, the hene-
quen-hemp business in Cuba could readily be developed
to a point where it would rank second only to sugar in
importance and profit yielding possibilities; and such
development should have a direct bearing upon the cer-
tainty of supply and cost of the daily bread of the people
of the whole earth. It is, therefore, worthy of the most
serious consideration.

Henequen offers many advantages to capital, espe-
cially to those investors who dislike to take chances on
returns. First of all, the crop is absolutely sure, if
planted on the right soil. Lack of rains or long droughts
are matters of no importance, and the plant will continue
to thrive and grow without deterioration in the quality of
fiber. In Cuba this growth is said to average one inch
on each leaf per month, and since it grows, as an old
expert expressed it, "both day and night, rain or shine,

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 195

even on Sundays and feast days, there is nothing to worry
about." Also it has practically no enemies. Cattle will
not eat it unless driven by starvation, which could not oc-
cur in Cuba. The crop is never stolen, as the product
could not be sold in small quantities. Since the plant is
grown on rocky lands, the leaves may be cut and con-
veyed to the decortication plant at any season of the year.

The life of the henequen plant is fifteen to twenty years,
and the average yield in Cuba is said to be about 70
pounds of fiber to every 1,000 leaves, and over 100
pounds are said to have been secured in favorable locali-
ties. This compares well with the average yield in Yuca-
tan. In this connection it may be noted that at the
World's Exhibition in Buffalo, sisal hemp made from
henequen in Cuba won the world medal in competition
with Yucatan and other countries.

The following is an authentic estimate of the cost of
growing henequen and producing sisal or fibre from the
same in Cuba. One hundred acres are used as the unit
of measure:

Cost of 100,000 plants @ $40 per M $ 4,000

Cost of preparing land 1,000

Cost of planting @ $5 per M 500

Cost of caring for and cultivation during four years 2,500

$ 8,000
Cost of cutting, conveying, decortication and baling 4,000

$12,000
The returns from the first cutting four years after planting should be :
100.000 plants with 30 leaves to the plant yield, 3,000,000 leaves
3,000,000 leaves (60 lbs. fiber each 1000 leaves) 210,000

lbs. @ 10^ per lb $21,000

Cost of production 12,000

Net profit per 100 acres $9,000

Net profit per acre $90

Practical work in the field has demonstrated the fact
that the cost of producing henequen fibre or sisal, if
carried on during a period of ten years with the present

196 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

price of labor, will amount to three cents per pound, or
$6,300 for the production of 210,000 pounds of fibre
coming from 100 acres of land. To this may be added
for interest on capital invested and possible depreciation
of plant or property, $1,700, making a total of $8,000.

This sum, representing the average annual cost of pro-
ducing, subtracted from $21,000, the normal value of the
crop at 10^' per pound, will leave a net return of $13,000
for the 100 acres, or $130 net profit per acre.

CHAPTER XVIII
COFFEE

To either Arabia or Abyssinia belongs the honor of
having been the birth place of those previous shrubs that
were the forerunners of all the great coffee plantations of
two hemispheres. And from the seeds of this valued
plant is made probably the most universally popular
beverage of the world. The people of Europe, North
Africa and Western Asia all drink coffee. The same is
true in most countries of South and Central America,
while in the United States and the West Indies no break-
fast is complete without it.

Of all known nations, however, the people of Cuba
consume the greatest amount of the beverage per capita.
Both in the city and in the country, the fire under the
coffee urn always burns, and neither invited guest nor
passing stranger crosses the threshold of a home without
being offered a cup of coffee before leaving.

The introduction of coffee into Cuba, as before stated
in this work, was due to the influx of refugees, flying
from the revolution in Santo Domingo, in the first years
of the nineteenth century. The majority of these immi-
grants, of French descent, and thoroughly familiar with
the culture of coffee, settled first in the hills around
Santiago de Cuba on the south coast, where they soon
started coffee plantations that later became very profit-
able. Others located in the mountainous districts of
Santa Clara around the charming little city of Trinidad,
where fine estates W'ere soon established and excellent
coffee produced.

From these first settlements the culture of the plant
rapidly spread to nearly all of the mountainous portions
of the Island, where the soil was rich, and where forest

197

198 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

trees of hard wood furnished partial shade, so essential
to the production of first-class coffee. In the mountains,
parks and valleys that lie between Bahia Honda, San
Cristobal and Candelaria, in the eastern part of Pinar del
Rio, many excellent estates were established whose own-
ers, residing in homes that were almost palatial in their
appointments, spent their summers on their coffee plan-
tations, returning to Havana for the winter.

Revolutions of the past century unfortunately destroyed
all of these beautiful places, leaving only a pile of tum-
bled-down walls and cement floors to mark the spot where
luxurious residences once stood. Cuba, during the first
half of the 19th century, and even up to the abolition of
slavery in 1878, was a coffee exporting country, but with
the elimination of the cheap labor of slaves, and the larger
profits that accrued from the cultivation of sugar cane,
the coffee industry gradually dropped back to a minor
position among the industries of the Island, and thou-
sands of "cafetales" that once dotted the hills of Cuba
were abandoned or left to the solitudes of the forests
where they still yield their fragrant fruit "the gift of
Heaven," as the wise men of the East declared.

Of all the varied agricultural industries of Cuba there
is none, perhaps, that will appeal more than coffee grow-
ing to the home-seeker of moderate means, the man who
really loves life in the mountains, hills and valleys be-
side running streams, where the air is pure and the shade
grateful, and the climate ideal. The culture of coffee is
not difficult, and by conforming to a few well-known re-
quirements which the industry demands it can easily be
carried on by the wife and children, while the head of
the family attends to the harder work of the field, or to
the care of livestock in adjacent lands.

The plant itself is an evergreen shrub with soft gray
bark, and dark green laurel-like leaves. The white-
petaled star-shaped flowers, with their yellow centers, are
beautiful, and the bright red berries, growing in clusters
close to the stem are not unlike in appearance the mar-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 199

maduke cherries of the United States. The fragrance
that fills the air from a grove of coffee trees can never be
forgotten.

The shrub is seldom permitted to grow more than ten
feet in height and begins to bear within three or four
years from planting. The berries ripen in about six
months from the time of flowering. Each contains two
seeds or coffee beans, the surrounding pulp shriveling up
as the time approaches for picking.

During the gathering of the crop women and children
w^ork usually in the shade of taller trees, such as the
mango or aguacate, stripping the fruit from the branches
into baskets or upon pieces of canvas laid on the ground,
which may be gathered up at the corners and carried to
the drying floors where the berries are spread out as evenly
and thinly as possible and given all the air and sunlight
available. Early in the morning these are raked over to
insure rapid drying. When sufficiently dry the berries
are run through hulling machines which remove the outer
pulp, leaving the finished green bean of commerce.

Approximately 500 trees are planted to the acre in
starting a coffee plantation, and these will yield under
favorable conditions at the expiration of the fourth year
about one half of a pound to a tree, or 250 pounds to the
acre, the value of which would be $50. The sixth year
these trees should produce one pound each, making the
return from one acre $100. Two years later these same
trees will yield $200 per acre, and the tenth year $300.
Each succeeding year, if well cared for, the yield should
increase until the trees reach maturity at twenty-five
years.

On the western slopes of the great Cordilleras that
sweep throughout the length of Mexico, several varieties
of excellent coffee are found. Among these is one, that
through some freak of nature, afterwards encouraged
and developed by the natives of that district, has been in-
duced to produce two crops a year. It is stated on reli-
able authority also that trees ten years old, in this re-

200 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

stricted area of western Mexico, will yield five pounds
of berries to the tree, or in the two periods of annual bear-
ing a total of ten pounds to each plant. The Department
of Agriculture is endeavoring to secure both seed and
nursery stock from this district, which will be trans-
planted to the Experimental Station at Santiago de las
Vegas, and definite data secured in regard to the success
of this variety of coffee in Cuba.

Where several small coffee farms are located in the
same vicinity, hulling machines may be purchased jointly,
and serve the needs of other growers in the district. The
crop when dried, cleaned and placed in hundred-pound
sacks, is usually strapped to the backs of mountain ponies
and thus conveyed to the nearest town or seaport for ship-
ment to Havana.

A coffee planter can always store his crop in the bonded
warehouses of Havana or other cities, and secure from the
banks, if desired, advances equivalent to almost its en-
tire value. The price of green coffee on the market
at wholesale ranges from 20^ to 25f^ per hundred weight.

It is a common sight either in Bahia Honda or Cande-
laria to see long trains of ponies bringing coffee in from
the outlying foot hills, or mountain districts. It is usu-
ally sold direct to local merchants, who pay for the un-
selected unpolished beans, just as they come from the
hands of the growers, $20 per hundred weight. This
high price is paid owing to the fact that the Cuban prod-
uct is considered, at least within the limits of the Repub-
lic, the best coffee in the world, and it will bring in the
local markets a higher price than coffee imported from
the foreign countries. The retailers after roasting coffee,
get from 40^ to 50^ per pound for it.

In spite of its superiority and the demand for native
coffee, less than 40% of the amount consumed is grown
in Cuba. Most of it is imported from Porto Rico and
other parts of the world, and this, regardless of the fact
that nearly all of the mountain sides, valleys and foot-
hills belonging to the range that extends through Pinar

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 201

del Rio from Manatua in the west to Cubanas in the east,
are admirably adapted to the cultivation of coffee, as also
are the mountains of Trinidad and of Sancti Spiritus in
the Province of Santa Clara, the Sierra de Cubitas and
la Najassa in Camaguey, and the Sierra Maestra range
that skirts the full length of the southern shore of Oriente.

The available lands for profitable coffee culture in
Cuba are almost unlimited and are cheap, considering the
fertility of the soil, the abundance of timber still stand-
ing, the groves of native fruit trees, the good grass found
wherever the sun's rays can penetrate, the splendid drink-
ing water gushing from countless springs, and the many
industries to which these lands lend themselves, waiting
only the influx of capital, or the coming of the home-
seeker.

The Government of Cuba is anxious to foster the coffee
industry, which was once a very important factor in the
prosperity of the Island. The first protective duty was
imposed in 1900; $12.15 being collected for each 100
kilos (225 *lbs.) of crude coffee, if not imported from
Porto Rico, that country paying only $3.40. During
the first years of the Cuban Republic this duty was in-
creased to $18 per hundred kilos, and later, 30% was
added, making a total duty paid of $23.40 on every 225
pounds of coffee imported. Porto Rico, however, is
favored with a reduction of 20% on the above amount
by a reciprocity treaty, which compels that country at
present to pay only $18.20 per hundred kilos.

Coffee in Brazil has been sold at from four to five cents
per pound and yet, we are told, with profit. On the sup-
position that it would cost &<^ per pound to grow it in
Cuba, with the average market for the green berries at
22^, the profit derived from a coffee plantation properly
located and cared for is well worth considering, and
since the grade produced is one of the finest in the world,
there is no reason why this Island should not in time, sup-
ply if not the entire amount, at least a large part of the
high-grade coffee consumed in the United States.

202 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

With the resumption of industries that must follow the
termination of the European War, the Government will
do all in its power to persuade families from the moun-
tainous district of Europe to settle and make their homes
in Cuba. Some of them undoubtedly will be attracted
to the forest covered hills that offer so much in the way
of health, charming scenery and opportunities for the
homeseeker with his family. It would be a most delight-
ful example of agricultural renaissance, if the hundreds
of "cafateles," abandoned for half a century, should
again be brought to life, with the resurrection of the old-
time coffee plantations, as an important Cuban industry.

CHAPTER XIX
THE MANGO

Of all Oriental fruits brought to the Occident, the
golden mango of India is undoubtedly king. For thou-
sands of years, horticulturists of the Far East, under
the direction of native princes, have worked towards its
perfection. Just when the seeds were introduced into
Cuba, no one knows, but certain it is that so favorable
were both soil and climate that the mango today, in the
opinion of the natives at least, furnishes the Island its
finest fruit. It has so multiplied and spread throughout
all sections that it plays an important part in the decora-
tion of the landscape.

Next to the royal palm, the mango is more frequently
seen in traveling along railroads or automobile drives than
any other tree. Its beautiful dark green foliage, tinged
during spring with varying shades, from cocoanut yellow
to magenta red, is not only attractive to the eye but gives
promise of loads of luscious fruit during the months of
June, July and August.

There are two distinct races or types of this family in
Cuba, one known as the mango, and the other as the
manga. The terminations would suggest male and fe-
male, although no such difference exists in sex. Both
in form and fruit, however, the types are quite different.

The mango is a tall, erect tree, reaching frequently a
height of 60 or 70 feet, with open crown and strong, vigor-
ous limbs. The fruit is compressed laterally, has a
curved or beak-like apex, yellow or yellowish green in
color, often blushed with crimson. It is rich in flavor
but filled unfortunately with a peculiar fibre that im-
pedes somewhat the removal of the juicy pulp.

203

204 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Nearly all varieties of mangoes are prolific bearers.
Their handsome golden yellow tinted fruit not infre-
quently bends limbs to the breaking point, so great is its
weight. The fruit is from three to five inches in length,
and will weigh from five to twelve ounces. The skin
is smooth and often speckled with carmine or dark brown
spots, and in most of the seedlings there is a slightly
resinous odor, objectionable to strangers.

The manga, quite distinct from the mango both in
form of tree and in appearance of fruit, is easily distin-
guished at a distance. It grows from 30 to 40 feet in
height, is beautifully rounded or dome shaped, and has a
closed crown or top. The panicles in early spring are
from 12 to 24 inches in length, pale green in color, usu-
ally tinged with red, and in contrast with the deep green
of its foliage produce rather a startling effect.

There are two types of the manga, one known as the
Amarilla and the other as the Blanca. More of the latter
are found in the neighborhood of Havana than in any
other section of the island. Three of the most perfect
samples of the manga blanca, both in tree and fruit, are
found within a few rods of each other on the northern
side of the automobile drive from Havana to Guana jay,
between kilometers 35 and 36.

The mangas also are prolific bearers, whose fruit ripens
in July and August, a month or so later than the mango.
The fruit is roundish, very plump, and with the beak
or point of the mango entirely missing. Its color is
lemon yellow with a delicate reddish blush, the length
about three inches and the weight from five to eight
ounces. The skin, rather tough, peels readily, and in
eating should be torn down from the stem towards the
apex. The same fibre is present as in the mango, while
the pulp is very juicy, sweet, slightly aromatic and pleas-
ant in flavor.

The manga amarilla, closely allied to the blanca, is a
very common form and quite a favorite in the markets
of Havana, where it is found towards the end of July.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 205

The fruit is a deeper yellow than the blanca, very juicy,
and also very fibrous, with a weight varying from four
to eight ounces. These, with the mangoes above de-
scribed, are seedling trees that have gradually spread
throughout the Island, the seed being scattered along
public highways and forest trails by men and animals.
Horses, cattle, goats and hogs are very fond of the mango.

Since all mangoes give such delightful shade, and
yield such an abundance of luscious fruit throughout
spring and early summer, the seed has been planted
around every home where space offered in city, hamlet
or country bohio. The center or "batey" of every sugar
and coffee estate in Cuba is made comfortable by their
grateful shade, w^hile single trees coming from seeds
dropped in the depths of the forest have gradually wid-
ened out into groves. During the years of the Cuban
War for Independence, the fruit from these groves, from
May until August, furnished the chief source of food
for insurgent bands that varied anywhere from 200 to
2000 men.

During the middle of the last century, when large coffee
estates nestled in the hills of Pinar del Rio, the mango,
with its grateful shade and luscious fruit, indicated the
home or summer residence of the owner. Today, of the
house only broken stones and vine-covered fallen walls
remain, but the mangoes, old and gnarled, still stand,
while around them have spread extensive groves of
younger trees, bearing each year tons of fruit, with none
to eat it save the occasional prospector, or the wild hog
of the forest.

The Filipino mango, although not very common in
Cuba, is occasionally found in the western part of the
Island, especially in the province of Havana, where it
was introduced many years ago, probably from Mexico,
although coming originally from the Philippine Islands,
where it is about the only mango known. The tree is
rather erect, with a closed or dome-shaped top, some-
thing similar to the manga. Its fruit is unique in form

206 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

— long, slender, sharply pointed at the apex, flattened on
the sides, and of a greenish yellow to lemon color when
ripe. The pulp is somewhat spicy and devoid of the ob-
jectionable fibre common to seedling mangoes. It is
usually preferred by strangers, although not as sweet and
delicious in flavor as other varieties of this family. The
tree is comparatively small, seldom reaching more than
30 feet in height. The fruit is from four to six inches in
length and will weigh from six to twelve ounces. The
Filipino has suffered but very little change in its pere-
grinations throughout two hemispheres. It is not a pro-
lific bearer, but its fruit commands a very good price in
the market. The Biscochuelo mango is of the East In-
dian type, although the time and manner of its introduc-
tion into Cuba is somewhat obscure. French refugees
from Santo Domingo may have brought it with them in
1800. It is found mostly in the hills near Santiago de
Cuba, especially around El Caney, and is quite plentiful
in the Santiago markets during the month of July. The
fruit is broadly oval with a clear, orange colored skin and
firm flesh, and is rather more fibrous than the Filipino.
Its flavor is sweet and rich, while its weight varies from
eight to fourteen ounces. This variety of the mango is
not closely allied to any of the above mentioned types,
but keeps well, and would seem to be worthy of propaga-
tion in other sections of the Island.

Something over a half century ago, a wealthy old sea
captain of Cienfuegos, returning from the East Indies,
brought twelve mango seeds that were planted in his gar-
den near Cienfuegos. One of the best of the fruits thus
introduced is called the Chino or Chinese mango, and
is probably the largest seedling fruit in the Island. On
account of size it sells in Havana at from 20^ to 40^,
although it is quite fibrous and rather lacking in flavor.
This mango, through care and selection, has undergone
considerable improvement, so that the Chino today is a
very much better fruit than when brought to Cienfuegos
sixty years ago.

I

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 207

During the early Napoleonic wars, a shipload of choice
mangoes and other tropical fruit from India was sent by
the French Government to be planted in the Island of
Martinique. The vessel was captured, however, by an
English man-of-war and carried into Jamaica. From
this island and from Santo Domingo, the French refugees
introduced a number of mangoes, including nearly all
those that are now growing in Oriente, while the manga,
so common in Havana Province and Pinar del Rio, is
thought to have been brought from Mexico, although
its original home, of course, was in India and the Malay-
sian Islands.

The fancy mangoes of Cuba today have all been im-
ported within recent years at considerable expense from
the Orient, and their superiority over the Cuba seedlings
is due to the patient toil and care spent in developing and
perpetuating choice varieties of the fruit in India. Of
these fancy East Indian mangoes, the Mulgoba probably
heads the list in size, quality and general excellence. The
fruit is almost round, resembling in shape a small or
medium sized grape fruit. Its average weight is about
sixteen ounces, although it sometimes reaches twenty-
four or more. When entirely ripe the Mulgoba is cut
around the seed horizontally. The two halves are then
twisted in opposite directions, separating them from the
seed, after which they may be eaten in the inclosing skin,
with a spoon.

The pulp is rich, sweet, of delightful flavor, and abso-
lutely free from fibre of any kind, which is true of nearly
all East Indian mangoes. Budded trees begin to bear
the third or fourth year, yielding perhaps 25 mangoes.
The sixth or seventh year, dependent on soil and care
bestowed, they should fear from three to five hundred.
In the tenth year, mangoes of this variety should average
at least a thousand fruit to the tree and will bring from
$1 to $3 a dozen in the fancy fruit stores of the United
States.

The Bombay is another excellent mango, devoid of

208 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

fibre. Its weight is somewhat less than the Mulgoba,
ten ounces being a fair average. Another East Indian
variety known as the Alfonse has the size and weight of
the Bombay, although differing in flavor and in its form,
which is heart shaped. Its weight will average ten
ounces.

A close companion of the Alfonse is known as the
'Tavorite," whose fruit will average about sixteen ounces.
The Amani is another choice East Indian mango of
much smaller size, since it weighs only about six ounces.
The "Senora of Oriente" is one of the varieties of the
Filipino introduced into that Province many years ago,
and has proved very prolific. It is fibreless, of good
commercial value, the weight of the fruit varying from
ten to twelve ounces. It is long and carries a very thin
seed ; its color is greenish yellow.

The "Langra" is another importation from India, a
large long mango weighing about two pounds, lemon yel-
low in color, of good qualities, with a sub-acid flavor.

The "Ameere" is similar to the Langra in color and
quality, the fruit weighing only about one pound.

The "Mailer" is very closely allied to both the above
mentioned types, and bears a very excellent fruit with
slightly different flavor and odor.

The "Sundershaw" is probably the largest of all man-
goes, the fruit varying from two to four pounds in weight,
fibreless, with small seed, but with a flavor not very
agreeable.

All of the above mentioned varieties of mangoes have
been introduced into Cuba at considerable expense and
grafted on to seedling trees, producing the finest mangoes
in the world. Owing to their scarcity at the present time
in the western hemisphere, very remunerative prices are
secured even in the markets of Havana. Shipments con-
signed to the large hotels and fancy fruit houses in the
United States have brought of course much higher pr'ces.

In the hands of a culinary artist the mango has many
possibilities, both in the green and the ripe state. From

THE HISTORY OF CUBA

209

it are made delicious jams, jellies, pickles, marmalade,
mango butter, etc. It is used also, as is the peach, in
making pies, fillings for short cake, salads, chutneys, etc.
This handsome tree, especially the variety known as
the manga, with its round synametrical dome-like form,

PRUrr VENDER, HAVANA

its rich glossy foliage of leaves that are never shed and

that remain green throughout the entire year, adds not
only to the beauty of the landscape, but furnishes most
grateful shade to all who may seek a rest along the road-
side.

It is more than probable that the Government of Cuba
will select the manga as the natural shade tree for its pub-
lic highways and automobile drives. The experiment
has been made in some places with excellent success, and
the delicious fruit yielded in such abundance would f-.^r-
nish refreshing nourishment for the wayfarer during
spring and early summer.

Choice varieties of the mango are comparatively un-

210 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

known in northern countries. Unfortunately the first
samples that reached northern markets came from
Florida seedlings, and owing to their slightly resinous
or turpentine flavor, did not meet with a very ready ac-
ceptance. The rich, delicious, fibreless pulp of the East
Indian mangoes, if once known in the larger cities of the
North, would soon create a furore, that could only be
satisfied by large shipments, and that would command
prices higher than any other fruit grown.

The mango, too, as a shade tree, or producer of fruit,
has one great advantage over the orange and many other
trees. It will thrive in the soil of rocky hills and in the
dry lands whose impervious sub-soil would bar many
other trees. The day is not far distant when the mango
will be not the most popular but also the most profitable
fruit produced of any tree in the West Indies.

CHAPTER XX
CITRUS FRUITS

Although the forests of Cuba abound in several va-
rieties of the citrus family growing wild within their
depths, the fruit was probably brought from Spain by the
early conquerors. The beautiful, glossy-leafed trees of
the wild sour and bitter oranges are met today through-
out most of the West Indies, and are especially plentiful
in this island. The seeds have probably been carried by
birds, but the wild fruit, although seldom if ever sweet,
with its deep red color, is not only ornamental to the for-
est, but often refreshing to the thirsty individual who may
come across it in his travels. The lime is also found
in more or less abundance, scattered over rocky hillsides,
where the beautiful lemon-like fruit goes to waste for
lack of transportation to market.

Almost everywhere in Cuba are found a few sweet
orange trees that were planted years ago for home con-
sumption, but only with the coming of Americans have
the various varieties been planted systematically, in
groves, and the citrus fruit has assumed its place as a
commercial industry in the Island.

Homeseekers from Florida found the native oranges
of Cuba, all of which are called "Chinos" or Chinese
oranges to distinguish them from the wild orange of the
woods, to be not only sweet but often of superior quality
to those grown either in Florida or California. A promi-
nent horticulturist, who during the first Government of
American Intervention made a careful study of the citrus
fruit of Cuba, stated that the finest orange he had ever
met during his years of experience was found in the patio
or backyard of a residence in the City of Camaguey.

211

212 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

The delicious fruit from that tree he described as an
accident or horticultural freak, since no other like it has
been found in the island.

The rich soils, requiring comparatively little fertilizer,
were very promising to the settlers who came over from
Florida in 1900, and many of these pioneers planted
large tracts with choice varieties of the orange, brought
from their own state, and from California. Capital was
interested in many sections, and extensive estates, orange
groves covering hundreds and even thousands of acres,
were planted near Bahia Honda, fifty miles west of Ha-
vana. Other large plantings were made on the Western
Railroad at a point known as Herradura, in the province
of Pinar del Rio, 100 miles from the capital.

Smaller groves were planted in the neighborhood of
San Cristobal and Candelaria, in the same province,
some fifty miles from Havana. Other American colonies
set out large groves in the eastern provinces; one at a
station of the Cuban Railroad, in Camaguey, known as
Omaha ; another east of the harbor of Nuevitas. Orange
groves were planted, too, at the American colony of La
Gloria and at nearby places on the Guana j a Bay of the
north shore.

One of the largest plantings of citrus fruit was started
on the cleared lands of the Trocha, in the western part
of Camaguey, some ten miles north of Ciega de Avila,
while at several different points along the Cuba Com-
pany's Road, orange groves were started during the early
days following its construction. Both the provinces of
Santa Clara and Matanzas, also, came in for more or less
extensive citrus fruit culture, while in the Isle of Pines,
during the first years of the present century, large hold-
ings of cheap lands were purchased by American pro-
moters, and afterwards sold in small tracts to residents of
the United States who were promised fortunes in orange
culture.

Some of these various ventures in citrus fruit culture,
especially those where intelligence was used in the selec-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 213

tion of soils, and sites commanding convenient transpor-
tation facilities, have proved quite profitable. Many of
them, however, far removed from convenient points of
shipment to foreign markets, have failed to yield satisfac-
tory returns and some have been abandoned to weeds,
disease and decay.

Some of the earliest and best kept groves were started
in 1902 and 1903, along the beautiful Guines carretera,
or automobile drive, between Rancho Volero and the Ex-
perimental Station at Santiago de las Vegas. These
groves have all reached their maturity and w^ith their
close proximity to the local market of Havana, and easy
transportation to the United States, have been, and are,
successful and profitable investments.

The first of these covered some 400 acres, all planted in
choice varieties of oranges by Mr. Gray of Cincinnati.
In this vicinity too, close by the Experimental Station,
is the Malgoba Estate, the most extensive and successful
nursery, not only in citrus fruit, but for nearly every
other valuable plant, fruit, flower or nut bearing tree in-
digenous to or introduced into Cuba. This nursery, as
well as the beautiful, orderly kept grounds of the Ex-
perimental Station, will be found very interesting and per-
haps valuable to the visitor from northern countries.

Some of the most successful groves in Cuba have been
those planted in what is known as the Guayabal District,
located near the Guanajay Road, in the extreme north-
western corner of the Province of Havana, within 25
miles, or easy automobile drive, from the capital of the
Island. The oranges produced in this district are all
from comparatively small orchards, well cared for, whose
fruit is sold to local purchasers and conveyed in trucks to
the markets of Havana. These oranges are sold in on
the trees, at prices varying from $10 to $20 per thousand.
The grape fruit, or toronja, alone is crated and shipped
to the United States, where the market for some years
has been quite satisfactory, especially when heavy frosts
have cut short the yield of Florida groves.

214 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

The great mistake of many of the early investors of
capital in citrus fruits in Cuba was not alone in the selec-
tion of the site, but in the fact that enormous tracts of
land were prepared at heavy expense and groves set out
with varieties not only unsuited to the market, but in
tracts so large that protection from disease, and from the
tall rank grasses of the island, was practically impossible.

There is perhaps no fruit grown for commercial pur-
poses that requires more constant care and intelligent
supervision than the orange and grape fruit. An orange
grove must be kept free from weeds, grass and running
vines; must be frequently cultivated to form a dust
mulch; the trees must be sprayed with insecticides and
should be always under the eye of an expert horticultur-
ist, or orange grower, who will recognize and combat not
alone the scale insect but scores of other diseases that may
attack the trees at any time. These, if neglected for a
year, or even for a few months, will make inroads into
the health of a grove that spells heavy loss if not ultimate
ruin.

In Florida and California these facts, of course, are
well known, and the rules for successful orange culture
are carefully followed. But in the early rush for cheap
lands in Cuba, and the selfish desire of the promoter for
huge profits and quick sales, regardless of the welfare of
the purchaser, tracts were purchased and trees were set
out with neither capital nor provision for the care and
fertilizer required to keep a grove thriving, from the time
of planting the nursery stock to its ultimate maturity.

Experience has proved that the most successful vari-
eties of oranges, intended for the export trade, are those
that bear very early in the fall, and very late in the
spring, avoiding thus all competition with oranges from
Florida and the Bahamas. Of these the early and the
late Valencias, together with the Washington navel, that
will easily stand shipment even to Europe and other dis-
tant markets, probably have the preference among most
growers in Cuba.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 215

The quality of this fruit is excellent, and although
the navel orange among some growers has gotten into ill
repute, the fault lies not in the orange itself, but in the
fact that inferior nursery stock was imposed upon many
planters during the first days of the Republic. During
the past six years, first-class well selected and packed
fruit has brought from $2 to $5 per crate, and sometimes
more, in the eastern and northern markets of the United
States, while common oranges, sold by the truck load
in the Havana market, bring to the grower from $6 to $12
per thousand, choice fruit selling at from $10 to $20 per
thousand.

For general commercial purposes, especially for ship-
ment abroad, the Washington navel or Riverside oranges
have probably no superior in Cuba. They are large in
size, weighing from l^^ to 2 pounds each. When prop-
erly grown the skin is thin, with deep red color, and the
fruit is full of juice, as one may judge from the fact that
no orange will exceed a pound in weight and not be
juicy.

The navel orange is seedless and exceedingly sweet,
although lacking somewhat in the spicy flavor found in
other varieties. Its season for ripening in this latitude
varies from August to November, and extends into Janu-
ary. ,7n planting groves with this variety care must be
taken that the buds come from trees producing first-class
fruit, since the type is liable to degenerate, unless the
grower selects ideal trees from which to cut his bud wood.

Both the Jaffa and the Pineapple orange are popular in
Cuba, especially for the local markets of the island, since
they ripen during what is known as the middle orange
season, or from December to March. The pineapple
orange is probably one of the most prolific of the mid-
season type. The fruit is pear-shaped, orange yellow in
color, and one of the most highly flavored oranges grown
in Cuba. Its skin is thin. The form of the tree is up-
right in growth rather than spreading.

The Jaffa is a dainty round orange, of medium size,

216 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

golden yellow in color, with a thin skin, and pulp tender
and juicy. It keeps well and is, as a rule, a prolific
bearer. The tree is upright in shape, compact and not
prone to disease.

The late Valencia, sometimes called Hart's Tardiff,
for commercial purposes and shipment abroad is recog-
nized as one of the most reliable varieties grown in the
island. It is seldom ripe before the month of March, and
is very much better during May and June. Its commer-
cial season extends from March to about the first of Au-
gust, while the fruit of some trees has been kept in good
condition even longer than this. The tree is thrifty and
very prolific, bearing heavy crops every year. The fruit
is of medium size to large, depending on the amount of
fertilizer and care given it, while the color is a bright
golden yellow. Good late Valencia oranges, during the
months of May, June and July, have never sold in the
Havana market for less than $15 to $20 per thousand.
When the tree is properly cared for, and the fruit is thor-
oughly ripe, the late Valencia is one of the best of the
citrus family.

The Parson Brown is probably the earliest orange of
all varieties that have been imported. It sometimes
ripens during the latter part of August. The fruit is of
good size and very sweet, with no particularly marked
flavor. The color of the peel is a greenish yellow, and
it may be eaten even before the yellow color appears. Its
early appearance on the market is the only thing, perhaps,
that recommends it for commercial purposes.

In 1915 some small plantings were made in Havana
Province of an orange brought from Florida, known as
the Lu Gim Gong. The principal merit of this orange
is said to be in its keeping quality on the tree. The fruit,
we are told, will hang on the branches in excellent edible
condition from one year to another. If this reputation
can be maintained in Cuba, oranges for the local market
may be had all the year round. Sufficient time has not
elapsed however, since the first trees were brought into the

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 217

island, to pass judgment on its merits or its commercial
value.

Although up to the inauguration of the Republic in
1902, the grape fruit, known in Cuba as the toronja,
was little valued, the people of Cuba have gradually ac-
quired a fondness for it, especially with the desayuno or
early morning coffee. Owing to this fact there is a
rapidly grooving local demand for the toronja that prom-
ises quite a profitable home market for this really excel-
lent fruit. The grape fruit of Cuba, although but little
attention has been given to the improvement of varieties,
has been favored in some way by the climate itself, and
that of the entire Island, including the Isle of Pines, is
very much sweeter and juicier than that grown in the
United States.

The cultivation of grape fruit in Cuba, especially in
the Isle of Pines, has been very successful as far as the
production of a high-grade fruit is concerned. The trees
are prolific and the crop never fails. Unfortunately,
grape fruit shipped from Cuba to the United States has
not always found a profitable market, and there have
been seasons when the crop became an absolute loss, since
the demand abroad was not sufficient to pay the transpor-
tation to northern markets. As the taste for grape fruit
grows, it is possible that this occasional glutting of the
market may become a thing of the past, but at the pres-
ent time many of the groves of grape fruit in Cuba are
being budded with oranges. This is true also of lemon
trees.

Limes, as before stated, are quite abundant in some
parts of the Island, growing wild in the forests of hilly
sections. The recent demand for citric acid would sug-
gest that the establishment of a plant for its manufacture
might solve the problem of enormous quantities of citrus
fruit that must go to waste every year unless some method
of utilizing it is discovered in the locality where found.

There are over 20,000 acres today in this republic on
which citrus fruit is grown. The total value of the es-

218 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

tates is estimated at about fifteen millions of dollars, but
with each year it becomes more apparent that the area of
really profitable citrus culture should be limited to a
radius of not more than one hundred miles from some
port whence regular shipments can be made to the United
States. This is an essential feature of the citrus fruit
industry. Its disregard means failure.

The wild varieties of the orange, both the bitter and
the sour, although too isolated and scattered for commer-
cial purposes, are often a godsend to the prospector in
the forest covered mountains, since the juice of the sour
orange mixed with a little water and sugar makes a very
pleasant drink. The wild trees themselves, with their
symmetrical trunks, dark glossy evergreen leaves, white,
fragrant flowers, and deep golden red fruit, that hangs
on the tree for months after maturity, furnish a very at-
tractive sight to the traveler, as well as a safe indication
of the fact that in Cuba the citrus fruit, if not indigenous
to the soil, has found a natural home.

CHAPTER XXI
BANANAS, PINEAPPLES AND OTHER FRUITS

The banana is of East Indian origin, but of an an-
tiquity so great that man has no record of its appearance
on earth as an edible fruit, nor can any variety of the
plant be found today growing wild. The importance of
the banana as a source of food for the human race in all
warm countries of low altitude is probably equaled by no
other plant, owing to the fact that a greater amount of
nourishment can be secured from an acre of bananas
than from any other product of the soil.

The banana has accompanied man into all parts of the
tropical world, and for the natives at least still remains
the one unfailing staff of life. The bulb once placed in
moist fertile earth will continue to propagate itself and
to produce fruit indefinitely, even without care of any
kind, although for commercial purposes it may be im-
proved and its productiveness increased through selection
and cultivation.

Few if any plants that nature has given us can be util-
ized in so many ways as the banana. The fruit when
green, and before the development of its saccharine matter
takes place, consists largely of starch and gluten, fur-
nishing a splendid substitute, either boiled or baked, for
the potato. Cut into thin slices, and fried in hot oil or
lard, it becomes quite as palatable as the Saratoga chips
of the United States. When baked in an oven and
mashed with butter or sauce, it is not a bad substitute for
the potato, ancj far more nourishing.

When sun-dried and finely ground, a splendid highly
nutritious banana-flour is produced, that is not only
pleasant to the taste, but according to the report of physi-
cians far more easily digested and assimilated than is

219

220 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

the flour of wheat or corn. From good banana flour,
either bread, crackers, griddle cakes or fancy pastry may
be made, that would be relished on any table.

The green fruit, when cut into small cubes, toasted and
mixed with a little mocha coffee to give it flavor, offers
the best substitute for that beverage that has been found
up to the present time. When scientifically treated with
sugar, the semi-ripe fruit with the addition of flavoring
extracts may be converted into very good imitations of
dried figs, prunes and others forms of preserves, that are
not only healthful and palatable, but are nutritious, and
may well serve as an important contribution to the food
products of the world.

Interesting and important experiments with banana-
flour and the various products of both the ripe and the
green fruit were made in Camaguey some years ago.
The results were exceedingly satisfactory, but with the
death of the inventor this promising industry was per-
mitted to drop into disuse. Had Cuba been able to com-
mand the use of, or fall back on this splendid substitute
for wheat flour, there would have been no bread famine
in the island, such as occurred in the spring of 1918, and
the Republic would have been independent of outside
assistance.

Bananas for commercial purposes, or rather for export,
have been grown for many years in the eastern end of the
Island, especially in the neighborhood of Nipe Bay,
where deep, rich soil, combined with the heavy rainfall
of summer, results in rapid growth and full development
of the fruit. The banana grown for shipment to the
United States is known in Cuba as the Johnson. There
are several types of this, but all resemble closely the ba-
nanas of Costa Rica and other Central American coun-
tries, where the United Fruit Company controls the trade.
Owing to the fact that this Company owns its own groves
in Central America, conveniently located for loading its
ships, the United States is supplied today almost entirely

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 221

from that section, and the exportation of bananas from
Cuba has been materially reduced.

Banana lands, too, are almost invariably well adapted
to the growing of sugar cane, hence the great fields of
Nipe Bay, and that part of Oriente once devoted to the
cultivation of bananas, were eagerly sought by the sugar
companies of the Island, and most of the territory con-
verted into big sugar cane plantations.

There are probably twenty varieties of bananas culti-
vated in different parts of Cuba. Some twelve or more
of these may be seen growing at the Experimental Station
at Santiago de las Vegas. The variety preferred for local
consumption and always in constant demand is the large
cooking bananas, known in the United States as the plan-
tain. This banana is not eaten in its natural state, but
when cooked, either green or ripe, it finds a place on
every table in Cuba.

The plant is tall and the fruit at least twice as long as
that of the ordinary banana of commerce. It is not as
prolific as other varieties, seldom bearing more than 30
or 40 to the stem, but it is found on every farm on the
Island and is relied on as a source of food, even more than
is the potato. The bunches under normal conditions
command in the market prices varying from 20(^ to 60(^,
dependent upon the number of "hands" or bananas to
the stalk.

The banana plant reaches a height of twelve or fifteen
feet and is reproduced from the sucker or offshoot of
the original bulb. About 400 hills are set out to the
acre. In twelve months the first comes to maturity, pro-
ducing a single bunch of fruit, whose price, dependent on
variety and size, varied from 20^ to $1. Each main
stalk during the year sends up six or eight suckers, that
are used to increase the acreage as desired. Bananas
for export are grown profitably only on or near the edge
of deep water harbors, where transportation to northern
markets is assured.

222 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

A description of all of the many varieties of the banana
grown in Cuba would be perhaps superfluous. The most
commonly cultivated for the table, and eaten without
cooking, is known as the Manzana or Apple Banana. Its
flavor may suggest the apple, although the choice of
name is probably accidental. The bunch is rather small,
and the fruit is bright yellow, only about one-half the
length of the banana of commerce, and stands out more or
less horizontally from the stem on which it grows. The
average price of these when found in the market is about
35^ per bunch.

Some three or four varieties of the red banana are
grown in Cuba, and while quite hardy and easily culti-
vated they are not prized in the Indies as in the United
States. The dwarf banana, or Platano Enano, has a
very pleasant flavor, not unlike that of the Johnson, or
banana of commerce, and may be found in almost every
garden in the Island. The plant reaches a height of
only five or six feet, and the bunches of fruit are long
and heavy, filled almost to the tip, and often supported
by a forked stock, caught under the neck of the stalk so
that the weight of the fruit will not break or pull over the
plant itself.

Another very choice banana is called the "Platano
Datil," or date banana. The stalks are relatively small
and hold but little fruit in comparison with other vari-
eties, seldom having more than two or three hands to the
bunch. The fruit itself is from two and a half to three
inches in length, round and plump, with a thin skin that
can be slipped off, like a glove, but with a flavor that is
probably the most delicate and delicious of the whole
Musa family.

Approximately 125,000,000 pounds of bananas are
exported from the Island each year, valued under normal
conditions at a little over a million dollars. The great
bulk of bananas grown in Cuba are for domestic con-
sumption.

Agriculture, although rapidly assuming as it should

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 223

the dignity of a science, still has its caprices or apparent
contradictions. And so it happens that the choicest
flavored and highest priced bananas of the world are
grown in the waterworn pockets of almost barren dog-
teethed rocks — "los dientes de perro" of the extreme east-
ern end of Cuba, just back of Cape Maysi.

Here the coast rises from sea level in a series of four
or five steps or comparatively flat plateaux, each some
four or five hundred feet above the other, until an alti-
tude of two thousand feet is reached. The rocks are
soft limestone and in the millions of waterworn pockets,
the leaves and dust of the forest jungle have left their
deposit for ages. In this shallow soil bananas not only
grow luxuriously but have a remarkably delicate and de-
licious flavor, essentially their own.

The secret of this wondrous growth and par excellence
however, lies not alone in the rocky soil, but in the fact
that generous nature at this point, contributes an abun-
dant shower of rain almost every day in the year. The
low, heavily waterladen clouds of the West Indian seas,
driven by easterly winds strike this series of table lands,
one rising above the other, and shower the lands with
daily rains. Hence it is that while the average rainfall
of Cuba is 54 inches, this series of table land of Cape
Maysi has an annual rainfall of 125 inches.

The result is that in spite of difficult access and a
cultivation confined to the hoe, millions of bunches of
choice bananas are grown and shipped from the mouth
of the Little Yumuri every year. United Fruit steamers
on their way north from South and Central Amer'can
banana fields stop at the above landing to take on a top
dressing of fancy fruit.

Owing to the fact that the banana has practically no
season, or rather that it may bear in any month, four
suckers of varying ages are set out in each hill, from
which four bunches of fruit, some three months apart,
will result during the year. With four hundred stands
or hills to the acre, the annual yield should be, approxi-

224 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

mately 1,600 bunches, and whether the crop is disposed
of in the local markets or converted into banana flour,
the growing of bananas may be made one of the important
industries of Cuba.

Patient toil and judicious selection have made the
modern pineapple one of our most delightful of all fruits,
in addition to which, in those countries not too far re-
moved from markets, it has assumed an important place
as a commercial industry. The fruit of the pineapple,
like that of the strawberry, is a strange compound or
consolidation of hundreds of little fruits, in one sym-
metrical cone, tinted when ripe with shades varying from
greenish yellow to golden red or orange. Like the straw-
berry, it is a ground fruit that must be planted and culti-
vated along the lines that bring best results with ordinary
field crops.

Pineapples have been grown in Cuba since the begin-
ning of the Spanish occupation, perhaps even before, al-
though no mention is made of them as being cultivated
by the Indians. As a commercial product the growing of
the pineapple on a large scale began during the first
Government of Intervention, although they were shipped
abroad to some extent before that time. In point of
money value, the industry ranks next to that of the citrus
fruit. Although up to the present time most of the pine-
apples intended for export are grown within fifty miles
of the city of Havana, over a million crates are annually
shipped to the United States.

Pineapples may be grown on any rich soil in Cuba,
and are considered one of the staple crops. The slips or
offshoots from the parent plant are set out in long ridges
some four feet apart, with intervening spaces averaging
a foot. These produce fruit in one year from planting,
and from each original stalk an average of six suckers
may be taken for planting in other beds, so that with a
very small start the acreage may be easily increased five
or six-fold each year.

About 8,000 plants are considered sufficient for an

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 225

acre of ground; and the cost of them when purchased
averages about $30 per acre, while the preparation of the
land for pineapple culture will amount to somewhat
more. The net returns under favorable circumstances
will vary from $75 to $100. The average net profit from
pineapples grown near Artemisia and Campo Florida is
said to be about $50 per acre. The high price of sugar,
since the beginning of the European War, has, however,
caused much of the former pineapple acreage to be con-
verted into cane fields.

The profit derived from pineapple culture, as in all
fruits or vegetables of a perishable nature, depends very
largely upon the shipping facilities of the locality se-
lected. Pineapples cannot long be held on the wharf
waiting for either trains or steamers. In this connection
it may be mentioned that the daily ferry between Key
West and Havana, by which freight cars can be loaded in
the fields and shipped to any city in the United States
without breaking bulk, has been very beneficial to
growers.

The Red Spanish, owing to its excellent shipping
qualities, is preferred to all others for export, although
many other varieties, such as the "Pina blanca" or sugar-
loaf, which will not stand shipment abroad, are used for
local consumption and bring an average price of ten cents
retail throughout the year.

The largest pines grown for commercial purposes in-
clude the Smooth Cayenne, a beautiful fruit, varying in
weight from five to fifteen pounds. Unfortunate is he
who may have partaken of the rich sweet, juicy Sugar
Loaf of Cuba, since it will discourage his fondness for
the Smooth Cayenne, the much advertised Honolulu and
other cone shaped products, whose flavor is not in keep-
ing with their appearance.

So delicious in flavor is the sugar loaf pine in compari-
son with those large varieties suited only for canning or
cooking purposes, that the latter have never become suffi-
ciently popular in Cuba to induce cultivation. In the

226 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Isle of Pines, however, as well as in Florida, the smooth
Cayenne is grown and shipped to the nondiscriminating
who live abroad. With care in packing, however, the
sugarloaf may reach northern markets.

The pineapple more than any other fruit appeals to the
canning industry, especially in Cuba, where hundreds of
thousands that have ripened too late for the northern
markets are left to rot in the fields. There are no better
pineapples grown in the world than in the Island of
Cuba, and the excess or overproduction of the fruit within
the next few years will undoubtedly be handled by prop-
erly equipped canning factories and thus add another in-
dustry to the revenues of the Island.

The Anon is a small shapely tree seldom growing over
twenty feet in height and common throughout all Cuba.
The fruit of the Anon, sometimes called the sugar-apple,
resembles a small round greenish white cone, about the
size of the ordinary apple. Its delightful pulp suggests
a mixture of thick sweetened cream, adhering to smooth
black sunflower seeds. Although delicious to eat fresh
from the tree, and very useful in making ices, it does not
readily endure shipment, and is thus confined commer-
cially to the local markets of the larger cities in Cuba.

The Chirimoya, belonging to the same family, is un-
doubtedly the queen of the Anones. It is larger than the
Anon, reaching the size of an ordinary grape-fruit. Its
pulp is white, soft and very delicate, while the skin, un-
like the Anon, is smooth, yellowish in color, with a blush
of red.

The Zapote, Nispero or Sapodilla, as it is variously
termed, is a beautiful ornamental tree of the forest, in-
digenous to tropical America and the West Indies. The
tree, with its trim shapely trunk and branches, its crisp,
dark green foliage that never fails, adds greatly to the
beauty of parks and lawns. The wood is hard, reddish
and very durable. From the trunk exudes chicle gum,
used in the United States for making chewing-gum. In
England, since it is more plastic than caoutchouc, and

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 227

more elastic than gutta-percha, it is employed as an
adulterant to these products. The fruit in size and color
resembles somewhat a small russet apple. It has a de-
lightfully sweet juicy pulp, not unlike a persimmon
touched with frost. The small glossy seeds are easily
removed, and the fruit is very refreshing when left on
ice, or in the early morning hours. Only with extreme
care in packing could zapotes, like many other fruits of
Cuba, stand shipment to foreign countries.

The Tamarind is a tall, beautiful tree frequently 70 to
80 feet in height, with a soft, delicate, locust-like foliage,
and purplish or orange veined flowers in terminal clus-
ters. The Tamarind probably originated in Abyssinia
or some other part of eastern tropical Africa, but at the
present time it is scattered throughout the entire tropical
world, and is very common in Cuba, There is perhaps
no tree known whose fruit furnishes a more refreshing
fruit than the Tamarind. It is said to have been brought
to Cuba from Southern Europe more than a century ago,
whence it has since been scattered throughout the forest,
through the medium of birds. From its branches, after
the flowers have disappeared, hang clusters of brown
colored, bean-like brittle pods. These when ripe are
filled with a sweet yet pleasantly acid pulp, which when
mixed with water makes a refreshing, slightly laxative
and healthful drink.

The Mamey Colorado is another giant tree of the for-
est, belonging to the Sapodilla family and indigenous to
tropical America. Its fruit is oval in form, some six or
eight inches in length, covered with a tough brown skin,
and filled with a rich peculiar dark red pulp, inclosing
a long, smooth, coffee-colored seed, that is easily separated
from the edible part of the fruit. In consistency and
flavor, it suggests slightly a well-made pumpkin pie.
Those unaccustomed to the fruit would probably find it
unpleasantly rich. The yellow or Mamey de Santo Do-
mingo is a true Mamey, entirely different from the Mamey
Colorado. The tree is large, tall and quite common in

228 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

the forests of the Island. Its fruit is round, russet yellow
in color and equivalent to a large grapefruit. It is used
only as a preserve, and in that capacity serves a useful
purpose.

The Guava, or Guayaba, as it is known in Spanish
countries, springs up unwanted in almost every field of
Cuba. Its nature is that of a shrub, spreading out with
little form or symmetry. If permitted to propagate itself,
it soon becomes a pest difficult to eradicate. A few choice
varieties, one of which is known as the Pear Guava, im-
ported from Peru, are very palatable. The meat of the
latter is white, rather juicy and free from seeds. The
common Guayaba of the field, while sometimes eaten
raw, is always in demand for jellies, Guayaba paste and
marmalades, which have a ready sale in Cuba and in
the United States and are very popular in the latter coun-
try. Animals of all kinds, especially pigs and horses,
are very fond of it.

The Mamoncillo is another beautiful forest tree in-
digenous to Cuba, that spreads out like a giant live-oak
or mammoth apple tree. Its round, russet green fruit
hangs from every branch, and is refreshing to the traveler
who stops a moment beneath its shade. Its slightly acid
pulp covers a rather large round seed, the whole resem-
bling a tough skinned plum, although the tree belongs to
an entirely distinct family.

Figs of all varieties, green, black and yellow, may be
found in almost every garden in Cuba. No effort has
been made to preserve them for commercial purposes,
but when ripe they are very refreshing taken with "de-
sayuno" or the early morning meal.

The Aguacate is another valuable product of the
Caribbean Basin, and seems to be indigenous to nearly
all its shores, including Mexico and Central and South
America. It extended south along the Pacific Coast also,
as far as Peru, where the Spanish conquerors found it in
use among the people of the Incas. Oviedo, in his re-
ports to Charles I of Spain in 1526, stated that he had

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 229

found this peculiar fruit on the Caribbean shores of both
South and Central America.

It was also indigenous to Mexico, where the Aztecs
called it the Ahuacatl, whence came the Spanish name of
Aguacate, by which it is known in Cuba. The name
Avocado has been adopted by the Department of Agri-
culture of the United States, in order to avoid the confu-
sion resulting from the many local names under which
this fruit is known in various countries.

The aguacate of Cuba is a tall handsome tree of the
forest, scattered more or less throughout all portions of
the Island. It frequently reaches a height of 70 or 80
feet, and although of an open spreading nature, neverthe-
less furnishes grateful shade. There are many types,
although systematic efforts to classify them botanically
have not been very successful. The distinction between
them usually made is dependent largely upon the shape
of the fruit or its color.

The most common variety in Cuba is probably the long,
pear-shaped aguacate, although trees bearing round and
oblong fruit are often met, especially where they have
been planted in gardens or orchards. In color the fruit
is usually bright green, or greenish red. Some types
again will vary from greenish red to a reddish purple.

The pear shaped aguacates vary in length from five
to ten inches, and will average probably a pound and a
half in weight. The round or oblong tjpes are usually
green in color, with a diameter of five or six inches. The
skin is about Viaih of an inch in thickness, smooth and
bright, and peels freely from the inclosed meat. The
meat is rather difficult to describe since it resembles in
flavor and texture no other edible fruit known. Its color
is golden yellow, resembling both in consistency and
shade, rich, cold butter, and is used sometimes as a sub-
stitute for this product of the dairy. Close to the skin
the meat has a slightly greenish tinge. It is very rich
in oil and has a pleasant nutty flavor, that evades all
description.

230 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

The aguacate may be eaten just as it comes from its
thin shell-like covering. In the center of the fruit is a
large hard seed some two and a half inches in diameter.
This never adheres to the pulp, and may be lifted out
readily so that the fruit can be eaten with a spoon.

The aguacate forms the finest salad in the world.
When used for this purpose the pocket from which the
seed was removed is usually filled with broken ice, over
which is poured a dressing of salt, vinegar and mustard
or pepper, as fancy may happen to dictate. When filled
with small cubes of sugar loaf pineapple and mayonnaise
dressing, you have a "salad divine." When taken this
way, the aguacate is cut in half, the shell-like covering
forming the bowl from which it is eaten. Owing to its
content of oil, and other nutritious elements, the aguacate
will probably go further towards sustaining life and pro-
ducing energy than any other fruit known. It is also
excellent when removed from the peel, cut into cubes and
eaten in soup.

The tree is a prolific bearer, the fruit ripening during
the months of July to October inclusive. Other varieties
recently introduced come into bearing in October and re-
main in fruit until January, some occasionally holding
over until the month of March.

In the development and improvement of the aguacate,
it is the aim of the horticulturist to lengthen the bearing
period as much as possible, and through selection to
eliminate any space between the pulp and the seed; for
the latter, if loose, will often bruise the fruit in handling
and shipping. Since the aguacate, like most fruit trees,
is not true to seed, this work can be accomplished only
through grafting, and although successful, requires care
and experience. The ordinary aguacate of the forest
bears the fourth or fifth year from the seed, while the
grafted varieties will bear the third year, A tree of the
latter t>pe, when five years of age, will bear from one
hundred to five hundred aguacates, that will average two

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 231

pounds in weight, and will sell in the fruit markets of the
United States at from $1 to $3 a dozen.

The tree may be grown on any well drained land and
under conditions similar to those of the mango. On hill-
sides that have sufficient depth of soil, it does very well,
and as the demand for fancy fruit in the palatial hotels
of the United States increases, the growing of aguacates
for commercial purposes will undoubtedly be undertaken
in Cuba on a still larger scale.

CHAPTER XXII
GRAPES, CACAO, AND VANILLA

In spite of the fact that the Grape is indigenous to
Cuba, prohibitory laws on the part of Spain discouraged
its culture in all of her colonies, so that vine culture in
the Island has had no opportunity to thrive. The few
isolated specimens found occasionally in gardens have
produced excellent fruit, especially in the neighborhood
of Guantanamo, where French refugees from Santo Do-
mingo introduced a few plants in the beginning of the
19th century.

Realizing the importance of grape culture in any coun-
try where possible, Dr. Calvino, Director of the Govern-
ment Experiment Station, in the first days of his admin-
istration, sent into the forests of Cuba for healthy speci-
mens of the wild grape, indigenous to the country, known
as the "Uva Cimarron." These were brought to the Sta-
tion and set out in soil especially prepared. After less
than a year had elapsed, four or five lanes, several
hundred feet in length, for which trellises of wire have
been provided, showed wonderful growth. This native
sour grape has simply covered the supports with a wil-
derness of leaves, vines and fruit.

Correspondence with Professor Munson of Texas, one

of the most noted grape specialists of the United States,

resulted in bringing to Cuba a dozen or more varieties

of choice grapes from that section. These, together with

others brought from France, Spain and other European

countries, have been planted at the Station, where, in

spite of the change of climate and conditions, they seem

to thrive. The Director is planning to bud the wild

stock of the Cuban grape with all of these choice im-

232

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 233

ported varieties, in order to ascertain which may give
the best results in this country.

Several acres are devoted to this experimental grape
field and have been supplied with convenient trellises and
facilities for irrigation. The Director and those inter-
ested with him are much encouraged with the present
stage of the experiment and have great confidence in their
ability to establish successfully in Cuba many of the
choice grapes of the world, although the medium of the
vigorous Cimarron grape of the island. If these ex-
periments prove successful, there is no reason why many
of the hillsides of this country should not be converted
into immense vineyards, and the cultivation of grapes
become a prominent and permanent source of agricul-
tural wealth.

Although intoxication among the inhabitants of Cuba
is almost unknown, the drinking of wine, as in all other
Latin American countries, has been a custom from time
immemorial and the annual importation of wine, most
of which comes from Spain, approximates $2,500,000 a
year. Should the culture of grapes in Cuba meet with
the success expected, there is no reason why this indus-
try, together with that of wine making, might not be car-
ried on in connection with coffee gro^\-ing in the moun-
tains, since the soils of the fertile hills throughout the
Island are adapted to the culture of both at the same
time.

In the matter of popular beverages it is somewhat in-
teresting to note that in each hemisphere, nature pro-
vided trees of the forest, the fruit of which for countless
centuries has furnished to man beverages that today are
almost as essential as food. In fact the Cacao of the
western hemisphere is a very nutritious food and drink
at the same time. While coffee is indigenous to Arabia
and Abyssinia, whence the trees have been carried into
nearly all parts of the tropical world, cacao, on the other
hand, was indigenous to the West Indies, to Mexico,
Central America and probably to all countries bordering

234 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

on the Caribbean. The shores of the latter great sea
or basin of the ocean, with their rich warm valleys formed
by the rivers tributary to it, are the natural home of the
cacoa, botanically known as Theobroma, or food of the
gods.

When Cortez forced himself as an unwelcome guest
upon Montezuma, in the first quarter of the sixteenth cen-
tury, he found a delicious drink called caca-huatl, made
by the Aztecs from the seeds of this really marvellous
plant. The taste of chocolate is so delicate and so pal-
atable that fondness for the drink does not have to be
acquired in any country. From the West Indies cacao,
or cocoa beans, were carried to Spain and the cultiva-
tion of the plant was introduced into the warmer lati-
tudes of the eastern hemisphere. The government of
Spain, with its short-sighted greed of those days, suc-
ceeded in keeping the manufacture of this drink more
or less secret from the outside world, and for chocolate
demanded prices so high that only the rich could afford
to buy it, retarding thus its general use in Europe for
nearly a century.

The consumption of chocolate today, both as a bev-
erage and as a food, especially in the manufacture of
confections, has assumed throughout the world very
large proportions. Approximately 150,000,000 pounds
of chocolate and cocoa produced from the cacao trees of
the Caribbean basin are consumed in civilized countries,
while the demand for the beans is increasing by rapid
bounds every year.

There is perhaps no form of nutritious food more
condensed and complete than that of the better grade of
chocolate. Nine-tenths of the content of this wonderful
bean are assimilated by the system, hence its value not
only to travelers but also to armies and forces in the
field, who demand condensed foods like chocolate, with
a large amount of nourishment in a very small bulk. An
analysis of cacao yields of carbohydrates, 37%; of fat,
29%; and of protein, 22%. In the better grades of

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 235

chocolate, used for both food and drink, there is prac-
tically no waste.

From the above it may be readily seen that the cultiva-
tion of cacao, from which the chocolate and cocoa of
commerce are derived, has become one of the standard
agricultural industries of the world, and one which for
the future gives great promise, since the demand for the
cacao beans is increasing rapidly, as is also the market
price.

The Central American republics bordering on the
Caribbean, as well as the northern coast of Colombia
and Venezuela, are the greatest producers of cacao,
while Trinidad, Cuba and other islands of the West
Indies, produce considerable amounts.

The culture of cacao, like that of coffee and citrus
fruits, is a healthful and profitable employment, and
especially agreeable for those fond of life in the open,
and who enjoy living in the mountains and valleys that
slope toward the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. Its
cultivation may be carried on where conditions are fav-
orable, in company with coffee, since while the latter is
grown on the fertile foothills and mountain sides, cacao
is at its best in the sheltered valleys of the forest. Cacao
demands a rich, deep, moist soil, well drained, since the
roots of the tree will not tolerate standing water, and
the subsoil, if not pervious, must lie at least six feet
below the surface.

The forest-covered valleys of tropical Cuba, receiv-
ing as they do the washings of the hillsides, upon which
decayed vegetable matter has accumulated during cen-
turies, furnish ideal locations for cacao. In preparing
for the cultivation of the plant, all underbrush is re-
moved, leaving only the tall stately trees, that although
giving the required shade will still admit some sunlight
to the soil below; otherwise the cacao, reaching up for
the light, assumes a tall slender growth, inconvenient in
gathering the crop. Trees for commercial purposes
should not attain a height of more than 25 or 30 feet,

236 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

the branches leaving the trunk six or eight feet from the
ground. They are planted as a rule from 12 to 15
feet apart, which is equivalent to from 200 to 300 trees
per acre.

There are several varieties of the cacao, although that
in common use in Cuba is known as the Cacao Criolla,
and is not subject to diseases as are some of the other
varieties grown in South America. The fruit is an
elongated pod of cucumber shape, with a rough cor-
rugated skin, hanging close to the trunk and branches.
The side facing the sun carries shades of red and yel-
low that produce a rather startling color effect when
first seen in the forest.

The cacao has two major crops each year. The pods
when ripe are removed from the trees with a hooked prun-
ing knife attached to a bamboo pole, and collected into
piles, sometimes covered with earth, where they undergo
a period of fermentation lasting five or six days. After
this the seeds are removed from the pods and carefully
dried for the market. In the days of Montezuma such
was the value of the. cacao seeds or beans that they took
the place of money or small change in adjusting pur-
chases, and they are recognized even today among the
Indians in representation of values. In the cacao fac-
tories, the oil of the bean, which represents 50% of its
weight, is extracted and known to the trade as cocoa but-
ter. The residue, knowTi as the cacao nib, is ground
and forms the chocolate and cocoa of commerce. Even
the hulls are used to make a low grade of cocoa known
as "La Miserable."

The tree comes into bearing the fourth year after plant-
ing and attains its maturity in about twelve years, with
a life extending over a half a century or more. The
yield per tree varies greatly, or from four to twelve
pounds annually, with an average, under favorable con-
ditions, or five or six pounds. This extreme range in
the productivity of cacao is dependent almost entirely
on the fertility of the soil, since the plant is greedy in

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 237

its demand for nourishment, and it quickly responds
to the generous use of fertilizer. In the ordinary sense
of the term no cultivation whatever is given to the cacao
tree, since it is truly speaking a denizen of the forest,
doing better when the soil above its roots is never dis-
turbed, although a mulch of leaves to maintain the mois-
ture is very beneficial. Weeds and brush that may ap-
pear are removed with a machete.

The successful culture of cacao requires experience
and care, especially during the period of fermentation
through which the pods must pass before the removal
of the seeds. This latter work is done usually by women
and children, hence, as in the case of coffee, cacao in
many senses of the word is well adapted to colonies and
settlements composed of families who have grouped to-
gether and made permanent homes in the mountains and
valleys that border on the Caribbean and the Gulf.

Cuba is exporting at the present time, mostly from
the province of Oriente, approximately two and a half
million pounds of cacao, valued at $15.20 per hundred
pounds, or $380,000. The commodity is staple and the
demand at good prices constant, while the cacao once
prepared for market does not deteriorate or suffer loss
if sale is delayed, all of which is to the advantage of the
grower.

The north shores of the Province of Pinar del Rio,
swept by the northeast trade winds throughout the en-
tire year, furnish in many places conditions most fav-
orable to the culture of cacao and coffee. The same is
true of southeastern Santa Clara, of the northern slopes
of the Sierra de Cubitas and of the coasts of Oriente
from the Bay of Nipe on the north, clear around to Cabo
Cruz on the southwest.

Both in nature and in its domestic use, cacao and the
vanilla bean have always been more or less closely asso-
ciated. Both are denizens of the deep forest, and are
indigenous to the two Americas from Mexico to Peru.
The Aztecs of Anhuac, the Mayas of Central America,

238 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

and the subjects of the Incas, further south, added the
delicate flavor of the vanilla to their chocolate, made
from the beans of the caca-huatl, from which the name
of cacao was taken. This association of vanilla with
chocolate and other confectioneries has continued into
modern times.

The so-called vanilla bean is not, as the name would
indicate, of the legume family, but is an orchid, climb-
ing the trunks of trees that grow on the rich soils of
tropical forests. The vine may be germinated from
seed planted in leaf mold at the base of the tree, but
where cultivated it is propagated from cuttings and
must have the shade of trees in order to thrive, climbing
the trunks to a height of 20 to 30 feet, by means of
fibrous roots that come from nodes along its length.

The leaves are bright green, long and fleshy; the
flowers are white and usually fragrant, having eccentric
forms peculiar to the orchid family. The pods, from
six to nine inches in length, are cylindrical and some
three-eighths of an inch in thickness. The vine begins
to bear in the third year from planting and will continue
to do so for thirty to forty years with but little care or
culture. The pods are gathered before they are fully
ripe, dried in the shade and "sweated" or fermented in
order to develop and fix the delightful aroma for which
they are famous.

It is during this period of fermentation that the bean
requires careful watching and expert knowledge in or-
der that the process of sweating may be perfect, since
upon this chemical change in the texture of the beans the
value of the product really depends. After fermenta-
tion the pods are carefully dried, tied in small bundles
and made ready for market or export. They will keep
indefinitely and the high prices secured for very small
bulk renders them an attractive crop to handle.

The vanilla of commerce is not only used to flavor
chocolate, sweetmeats and liquors, but also enters into
the composition of many perfumes, owing to an aro-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 239

matic alkaloid tlfat exudes from and crystallizes on the
outer coating of the best quality beans. These under
normal conditions are worth from $12 to $16 per pound.

Owing perhaps to the lack of experimental initiative,
the vanilla bean, although at home in the heavy forests of
Cuba, with the exception of a few instances has never
attracted the attention of those who are in a position to
grow and care for this valuable plant. In conjunction
with cacao, coffee, or any industry carried on in the rich
forest-covered mountain valleys of the Island, there is
no reason why the culture of the vanilla bean should
not be made very profitable.

Aside from the removal of the beans from the vine,
the only effort required is that of assisting nature in the
fertilization of the flowers, which in the forest, of course,
is carried on by insects, but for commercial purposes, in
order to insure a large crop of beans, it is well to see
that each flower is fertilized by shaking a little of the
pollen upon the stamens. This is readily done with the
use of a light bamboo ladder that may be carried from
tree to tree.

Indians from the eastern forests of Mexico, between
Vera Cruz and Tampico, would readily come to Cuba
to teach the best methods of curing or take charge of
the treatment of the beans after picking, and thus insure
the success of a very profitable crop, which up to the
present has received practically no attention.

CHAPTER XXIII
VEGETABLE GROWING

With the advent of the American colonists in 1900,
truck gardening sprang rapidly into prominence in Cuba
until today it forms an important part of the small
farmer's revenue. Most of the well-known vegetables of
the United States are grown here, not only for local mar-
kets, but for shipment abroad. They are usually planted
at the close of the rainy season in October or November,
and are brought to maturity in time to reach the North
during winter and early spring, when high prices pre-
vail.

Those vegetables from which the best results have
been obtained are early potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants,
sweet peppers, okra, white squash, and string beans.
These may be grown in the rich soils of any part of the
Island, but are only profitable when cultivated close to
railroads or within easy reach of steamship lines having
daily sailings from Havana. Profits depend on loca-
tion, soil, water supply, intelligent cultivation and suc-
cess in reaching markets in which there is a demand for
the product.

The long belt of land lying just south of the Organ
Mountains of Pinar del Rio, extending from east to west
throughout the province, furnishes the largest tract for
vegetable growing in Cuba. The conditions in this sec-
tion are exceptionally favorable to that industry. Close
to the base of the mountain range, the surface is rather
rolling, but soon slopes away into the level prairies ex-
tending out toward the Caribbean. The soil as a rule
is a dark grey sandy loam, easily worked at all seasons,
and responds quickly to the use of fertilizers and to cul-
tivation.

240

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 241

Numerous small streams that have their origin back in
the mountains, furnish excellent natural drainage, and
some of them can easily be used for irrigating purposes,
if necessary, in the dry months of February and March.
The Western Railway of Havana runs through the en-
tire length of the vegetable belt, reinforced by a splendid
automobile drive, more or less parallel, connecting the
further extremity of Pinar del Rio with the markets and
wharves of Havana.

These lands are very productive, and under intelligent
management, especially when irrigation can be employed,
may be rendered exceedingly profitable, through the cul-
tivation of vegetables. In some sections, the semi-vuelta
or Partido tobacco fields monopolize the use of the land
during the fall months, but there are nevertheless hun-
dreds of thousands of acres in this district that if prop-
erly cultivated, and conducted in connection with can-
ning plants, would yield large revenues to the Island.

Nearly all seed is brought from the United States,
fresh, each year, and the planting season for some crops
begins in September, extending through the entire win-
ter, especially where irrigation or fortunate rains fur-
nish a sufficient amount of moisture to carry the crop
through the dry months of early spring.

The methods employed in vegetable growing are iden-
tical with those of the United States, and the results
are practically the same, aside from the one important
fact that all fall grown vegetables, or those that may be
placed on the markets of large cities in the United States
between January and April, bring, as a rule, very high
prices.

Later in the spring the vegetable gardens of Florida
and the Gulf States come into competition, causing the
growers of the Island gradually to yield to those of sec-
tions further north. It is at this time, or in the late
spring, that the canning industry could take care of the
great surplus of vegetables that for any reason might
fail to find a profitable market abroad. Well equipped

242 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

plants could handle this crop with great benefit both to
the vegetable growers and the canners.

Irish potatoes, planted in the fall so that the crop may
be brought to maturity in March, have proven very suc-
cessful throughout this section, as well as in the beauti-
ful Guines Valley, southeast of Havana. The potato
growers of Cuba have experimented with nearly all of
the standard varieties of the United States and it is
rather difficult to determine which has given the best
results.

The Early Rose variety of Irish potato is quite a
favorite in Cuba, owing to its rapid growth and pro-
ductivity. Later potatoes, while finding a sale perhaps
in the local market, are not considered profitable, since,
as a rule, one can procure during summer and fall ex-
cellent potatoes from Maine and Nova Scotia, with
greater economy than by growing them in Cuba, at times
when the land can be more profitably used for other
purposes.

Potatoes, of course, need barn yard manures and fer-
tilizers, the more the better; or rather, the greater is the
return. The yield varies according to conditions any-
where from forty to one hundred barrels and more per
acre. The Cuban product is almost invariably of good
quality, and when placed in the eastern markets of the
United States in the month of March, will bring any-
where from $6 to $10 per barrel. Under normal condi-
tions $8 seems to be the ruling price for Cuban potatoes
on the wharves at New York, where they are sold as
exotics or new potatoes. Thus $500 may be considered
a fair return per acre.

Green peppers, too, have been found to be one of the
most satisfactory and profitable crops in Cuba. They
are planted in rows three feet apart, spaced a foot or
more in the row so that they can be kept clean with ad-
justable cultivators drawn by light ponies. Hand cul-
tivation, although sometimes indulged in, with the pres-
ent price of labor is practically impossible.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 243

A well-known pepper grower of the Guayabal dis-
trict, in the northwestern corner of Havana Province, on
less than a hundred acres of land, grew 6,000 crates
of green peppers in the winter of 1917-18, that netted
him $6 per crate in the City of New York. Peppers
are easily grown and handled, and the market or de-
mand for them seems to be quite constant, hence they
have become one of the favorite, vegetables for the export
trade.

Tomatoes, too, are grown very successfully in Cuba
during the late fall and winter. The seed is secured
from reliable houses in the United States each year, and
is selected largely with reference to the firmness or ship-
ping quality of the fruit. The methods of cultivation
are similar to those employed in the United States. The
weeds are usually killed out of the field in the early
spring, and kept down wi4;h profitable cover crops, such
as the carita and velvet bean. These, when turned un-
der or harvested by hogs, place the soil in perfect con-
dition.

The planting i^ done usually in October and Novem-
ber and the cultivation carried on either with native
horses or mules, or gasoline-propelled cultivators. The
yield where the water control and other conditions are
favorable, is large, and the price secured in the northern
markets varies from $2 to $5 per half bushel crate. It is
true that when tomatoes from Florida and the Gulf
States begin to go north in large quantities, there are
frequently reports of glutted markets and falling prices.
It is then that the canning factory comes to the rescue
of the planter and contracts for the remainder of his
stock at satisfactory prices.

Of all varieties, the Redfield Beauty is probably the
tomato most in vogue among growers in Cuba. It grows
luxuriantly and yields from two hundred to three hun-
dred crates per acre.

Eggplants as a rule are successfully grown on all
rich mellow soils. The methods of cultivation are al-

244 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

most identical with those employed in growing tomatoes.
A small pear shaped variety is grown for the local mar-
kets in Havana and other cities, but for export purposes
it would be unsatisfactory. The finest varieties known
in the States are all found here. The yield under fav-
orable conditions is large and the crop stands shipment
for long distances without injury.

As a rule the prices obtained in the north have ren-
dered the growing of egg plants very profitable. From
$3 to $7 per crate are the usual limitations in price.
The uncertainty of this price, however, in different sea-
sons, has rendered the production of the eggplant rather
an interesting gamble. This is true regardless of the
quality of the fruit, in nearly all products sold in dis-
tant markets.

Okra, or quimbombo, as the vegetable is called in
Cuba, while not as a rule commanding fancy prices, nev-
ertheless brings satisfactory returns, both abroad and
in the local market, where the demand is more or less
steady. Like all others mentioned, it is strictly a late
fall or winter vegetable, and its cultivation is identical
with methods employed in the United States. Prices
usually obtained are from two to three dollars a half
bushel crate.

The growing of lima beans in Cuba has proved a gilt-
edge undertaking for those who have been careful in the
selection of seed and proper cultivation after planting.
The price obtained in the United States has varied be-
tween $2 and $8 per hamper, or bean basket, with an
average of perhaps $5. The crop is quickly grown and
with sufficient labor to gather the beans at the proper
time the grower is relieved of his only cause for worry.
The labor problem can usually be overcome if the farm
is located near any one of the small towns where help
of women and children is available.

String beans, while readily grown in Cuba, do not al-
ways find a demand in the northern markets sufficient to
justify the fancy prices frequently obtained for other

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 245

vegetables. The local demand in Havana, while not
large, is nevertheless satisfactory to the small farmer
living within a short distance of the city, where he can
deliver his crop without the expense of railroad trans-
portation.

The summer squash, too, succeeds very well in Cuba,
and if the crop does not encounter the competition of the
growers in the Gulf States, it is, as a rule, fairly profit-
able. A variety of the native squash known as the
Calabaza, always finds a ready sale in the local mar-
kets. This prolific Criolla production is almost always
planted with corn by the native farmers, since its yield
never fails and its market is constant and satisfactory.

Recent experiments have been made by an American
grower who has imported the seed of the small pie-pump-
kin into Cuba. To use his own words, "This variety
grows even faster than weeds, and the pumpkins cover
the ground so thick that you can hardly avoid walking
on them." They make a very fine fall and winter
crop, with an average yield of five tons per acre. This
delicate variety of pumpkin, when canned, will prob-
ably prove available for export purposes.

The great drawback to profitable vegetable growing
in Cuba lies largely in the uncertainty of the northern
markets, w^here prices fluctuate so rapidly, with the mini-
mum and the maximum so far apart, that it is difficult
for the vegetable grower, a thousand miles away, to
count with any certainty on the returns from his crops
when shipped abroad. The establishment of receiving
agents, perhaps, under the control of men who were fi-
nancially interested with the growers themselves, might
remedy this difficulty. The canning industr}% if estab-
lished on a sufficiently broad scale, would also add sta-
bility to the price of all crops grown in Cuba, and place
the cultivation of vegetables on a more certain founda-
tion.

The introduction of irrigation, wherever possible, in-
sures so generous a crop of almost any vegetable planted

246 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

in this Island, that the returns to the grower, even where
the price may not be fancy, will be decidedly remunera-
tive. The incalculable advantages to be secured by ir-
rigation, especially in the growing of vegetables, planted
in the late fall and gathered during the winter and early
spring, when rains are not always forthcoming, is a
matter in which the Department of Agriculture is deeply
interested.

One of the best irrigation engineers of the United
States has been invited to go over the field of Cuba, and
to advise the Government in regard to the various locali-
ties in which irrigation plants may be installed with suc-
cess and profit to the growers. These plans when car-
ried out will prove of marvellous benefit to the agricul-
tural industry and will greatly increase the revenues de-
rived from tobacco, as well as from vegetables.

The great advantage, however, enjoyed by all vegetable
growers in Cuba, lies in the fact that stormy weather
never interferes with the cultivation of crops; sunshine
may be depended upon every day of the year, and the
farmer is seldom if ever compelled to lay aside his imple-
ments, and wait for the weather to adjust itself to his
needs. In other words, he can always work if he wants
to, and the market abroad, if he "strikes it right," may
yield him a small fortune from a comparatively few acres
in a very few months.

It would be misleading to the prospective farmer or
stranger to quote the almost fabulous returns at times
secured on some favored spot, but with irrigation, which
insures absolute control of the growing crop, the profits
from vegetable raising may run anywhere from $100
to $500 per acre, and more.

Among those "striking it rich" incidents that may be
occasionally found, may be mentioned a little tract of
ground consisting of only four acres of land, located
along the railroad track, not 100 yards from a station on
the Western Railway. Here two Spanish storekeepers
placed under cultivation four acres of land that had

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 247

been previously prepared wdth a carita bean crop, hog
fed and turned under. These partners had a well sunk
in the middle of the tract, and a little gasoline engine
installed that enabled them to adjust the water supply
each day to the requirements of the field.

Here they planted eggplants, tomatoes, green peppers
and Irish potatoes. The cultivation was done by one
man and a pony. During the gathering of the crops
some additional help was required, although the two
owners worked hard themselves during late afternoons
and early mornings. The return from these crops dur-
ing the four months in which they were in the ground,
amounted to $6,430.

Incidents of this kind are not by any means common,
but nevertheless they give some indication of what may
be accomplished in growing vegetables in Cuba, when
the work is conducted along modern lines and under
intelligent management. Capital, of course, is neces-
sary, as in all other industries, but the reward, even with
the element of the gamble taken into consideration, is to
say the least very tempting.

CHAPTER XXIV
STANDARD GRAINS AND FORAGE

Corn or Maize was probably indigenous to the Island
of Cuba, since it was one of the chief staples of food
used by the Siboney Indians at the time of Columbus's
visit. This cereal may be grown in any of the provinces,
although varieties introduced from the United States do
not give the results that might be expected.

The native Cuban corn has a comparatively short ear
with its point closed by Nature. This prevents the en-
trance of the grub or worm, so destructive to the north-
ern varieties that have been introduced here. The ker-
nel is hard, bright, yellow, rich in proteins and in oil,
and is very nutritious as a food.

In spite of the small size of the ear, on rich lands 40
bushels per acre are frequently secured, so that, taking
into consideration the fact that two crops may be suc-
cessfully grown in twelve months, the sum total of the
yield is not bad, and the price of maize in the local
markets is always satisfactory. Experiments are being
carried on at the present time towards improving the na-
tive Cuban corn, some of which have met with success.

The method of growing corn in Cuba has little to
recommend it. Improvements will come, however, as a
result of the excellent instructive work being carried on
by the Government Experimental Station. As a rule,
corn in Cuba is planted too close, and with absolutely
no attention paid to the selection of seed ; hence we seldom
find more than one ear to a stalk.

A rather novel experiment, carried on by Mr. F. R.
Hall, of Camaguey, has proved quite satisfactory in in-
creasing the length of the ear. His corn is grown in

hills four feet apart and cultivated in both directions.

248

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 249

Two grains are planted in the hill, one a grain of se-
lected Cuban corn, the other a grain of first-class Ameri-
can corn. The latter will make the taller stalk of the
two, and from the former, or native stock, the tassel is
nipped off, so that only pollen from the American corn
is permitted to fall upon the silk and thus fertilize the
native ear.

The result of this experiment has been a very much
larger ear, the tip of which has retained the tight twist
of the husk, peculiar to native corn. This closes in and
protects the grain from attack of worms or borers. By
selecting from this cross, and again crossing or fertiliz-
ing with Northern corn, a greatly improved variety of
maize has been produced. This experiment is sufficient
to demonstrate that a great deal may be done towards
improving both the size and quality of Cuban corn.

Between the rows, calabaza, a variety of native pump-
kin, greatly resembling that of the United States, is
gro^\Ti as a rule, thus following one of the precepts of
New England. In this connection pumpkins from
Massachusetts seed give excellent results, planted wuth
com. The demand for com in the market, owing to the
large amount consumed in the Island, insures always a
good price to the grower.

Nearly all varieties of millet and kaffir com thrive
well in Cuba and furnish a very nutritious food for both
stock and poultry. This millet, or "millo," of which
two varieties, the tall white and the short black, are in
common use, is apparently free from enemies, and since
it seems to thrive in seasons either wet or dry, and in
lands either moist or subject to drought, the crop is con-
sidered very reliable and hence profitable especially where
poultry raising is contemplated.

Wheat was grown at one time for home consumption, in
the Province of Santa Clara. Here, on the high table
lands, with a comparatively low temperature during the
cool, dry winter months, it came to maturity. In one lo-
cality west of the city of Sancti Spiritus in Santa Clara,

250 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

there is quite an extensive table land, with an altitude
of some 2,000 feet, where a very good variety of wheat
was grown along about the middle of the 19th century.
It is said to have furnished an abundance of good grain
that was highly prized in that section. Just why its cul-
tivation was abandoned is not known, aside from the
fact that most of the agriculturists found growing sugar
cane vastly more profitable. With money from the sugar
crop flour could be purchased and the demands of the
baker satisfied.

Experiments are contemplated in the near future in
the growing of wheat in this same locality. But regard-
less of the results, it is more than probable that custom
or inclination will impel the people of Cuba under nor-
mal conditions to purchase their wheat from the United
States.

Nevertheless, extensive experiments in the propaga-
tion of wheat, the seed of which has been brought from
many countries, are now in process of development in
the grounds of the Government Agricultural Station.

These will probably be supplemented a little later by
plantings from selected seeds of the most promising va-
rieties on the fertile soils of high plateaus in southeastern
Santa Clara. Experimental work at the Central or Ha-
vana Station facilitates also the study of any disease
that may attack different varieties of wheat before they
have been accepted as permanently successful in Cuba.

Next to wheat bread, rice is in greater demand than
any other food staple in Cuba. Large quantities are
imported every year from India, and were it not for the
low price of the product, greater attention would prob-
ably have been paid to its local production. Upland or
dry rice has been grown to a certain extent in Cuba for
many years. Nearly every farmer with suitable soil, who
can command irrigation in any form, has a small patch
of rice for his own consumption, and that grown from
the Valencia seed is much preferred to the imported rice.

The European War, with its attendant difficulties of

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 251

high freights and shortages of shipping, has stimulated
the planting of rice in Cuba to a greater extent than
ever before. A series of experiments are now being car-
ried on at the Government Agricultural Station, in order
to secure more definite knowledge in regard to the suc-
cess of rice in various soils, altitudes and months of
planting. For this purpose seeds of the Valencia, Bar-
bados and Bolo, the exotics also from Honduras and
Japan, together with American upland and golden rice,
are being tried. The last-named seems excellently-
adapted to Cuban soil and latitude.

In order for rice to be successfully grown, however,
certain conditions are absolutely essential. Most im-
portant of these is first, a fairly rich soil, underlaid with
an impervious subsoil of clay, and located in sections
where irrigation, or the application of water to the
crop, may be possible. Comparatively level valleys or
basins, lying close to the mountains, that have impervious
clay subsoil, are considered favorite localities. The
preparation for rice, as with most other crops, necessitates
the extermination of all weeds and the thorough plough-
ing or pulverizing of the soil, after which it should be
planted with drilling machines as is wheat or oats. The
sowing of the rice in seed beds to be afterwards trans-
planted requires entirely too much hand labor for the
successful cultivation of this or any other crop in Cuba,
unless perhaps an exception might be made of tobacco
and a few winter vegetables. Machinery adapted to the
cultivation of rice or any other crop, is absolutely essen-
tial to successful agriculture in Cuba at the present time.

Rice is planted with the earliest spring rains of March
or April, when possible, so that the crop may be taken off
in August or September. When lack of early rains ren-
ders this dangerous, it is planted in late May, or early
June, and gathered in the month of October. Seeds of
a variety of rice that is said to thrive in salt marshes
have been received at the Experimental Station and will
be thoroughly tried out a little later.

252 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

North and east of Moron, in western Camaguey, are
low savannas extending over thousands of acres that are
covered during much of the rainy season with a few
inches of water, and where the surface, even during the
dry season, is moist, although not muddy. These great
level areas have practically no drainage and are almost
invariably saturated with water, although in no sense of
the word can they be considered swamps, and if planted
in rice, as are the low prairies of southern Louisiana and
Texas, would seem to give promise of success. In the
district above mentioned, these flat damp lands extend in
a wild belt for many miles along the north coast of Cama-
guey, between the mountains and the ocean. They are
covered with grass on which cattle feed during the dry
season.

There are many other similar lands located at differ-
ent points along the coast of Cuba. If these could be
successfully dedicated to the cultivation of rice, follow-
ing where convenient the methods prevalent in the west-
ern Gulf States, an enormous saving to the Island would
be made as well as the development of a now neglected
industry. The importation of rice from the orient and
other foreign countries amounts to approximately three
hundred and thirty million pounds, valued at
$12,000,000.

With the increase of population and the demand for
rice as a staple food product, the cultivation of this grain,
so popular in all Latin-American Republics, will un-
doubtedly be considered. Experiments now being car-
ried on at the Government Station w^ll ultimately de-
termine the varieties and conditions under which it can
be most economically and successfully grown in Cuba.

In spite of the fact that two of the best grasses known,
both of which are said to yield even better here than in
either Africa or the plains of Parana, whence they came,
flourish in Cuba, the Island still imports large quantities
of hay from the United States for use in cities. The
potreros or meadows of Cuba with their great fields,

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 253

stretching over many leagues of territory, are as rich as
any known, and can support as a rule at least twenty
head of cattle to every caballeria or 33 acres.

The Parana grass of South America grows on the low
lands of Cuba with a luxuriance that will almost impede
travel through it on horseback. The jointed stems of
this grass, interlacing with each other, frequently grow
to a length of ten or 12 feet. The same is true of the
Guinea, brought from the west coast of Africa, which is
adapted to the higher lands and hillsides, and where the
soil beneath is rich, it often reaches a height of 6 or 8
feet, completely hiding the grazing cattle or the man
who may be endeavoring to force his way afoot across
the field in search of them. The native indigenous
grasses of the Island, although suitable for grazing pur-
poses, are rather tough and hard and will not fatten
livestock as will the two grasses referred to above.

Probably the best permanent pasture in Cuba is se-
cured by planting Bermuda. This grass has been im-
ported from the United States and installed in Cuba with
splendid results. On rich soils the growth is rank, and
the sod firm, with a larger yield probably on account of
the more favorable climate. Stock of all kind, espe-
cially horses and hogs, are very fond of the Bermuda
grass, preferring it in fact to any other.

Some stock growers, in the Province of Camaguey,
are planting large fields of it, as one rancher explained
"just to tickle the palate" of his brood mares. This
same grass, too, is being used for lawns in nearly all
parks and private grounds in the neighborhood of Ha-
vana. With a little care at the beginning of the rainy
season, a splendid firm lawn can be made with Bermuda
in a few weeks.

Recognizing the value of alfalfa, which is today prob-
ably the standard forage of the Western and Southwest-
ern States of North America, experiments were made in
Cuba at different times, but not always with success. A
fairly good stand was apparently secured on President

254 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Menocal's farm "El Chico," just out of Havana. But
in spite of earnest efforts on the part of the gardener,
weeds eventually choked it out, so that the field was
abandoned. At the Experimental Station a small tract
of alfalfa has been recently planted that seems to give
promise of permanence and complete success.

In the Province of Camaguey, a well-known stock
raiser from Texas secured seed from his native state that
had been inoculated, and planted it in drills three feet
apart. All weeds had been previously exterminated
through the use of a heavy cover crop of velvet beans,
turned under. As soon as the alfalfa began to show,
light-pony-drawn cultivators were kept running between
the rows, cutting out every weed that appeared, and al-
lowing the alfalfa gradually to spread, until the spaces
between rows were completely covered, and further cul-
tivation was unnecessary. The soil was rich and moist,
and could be irrigated in February or March if neces-
sary. From his alfalfa today, he is making seven heavy
cuttings a year, which demonstrates the fact that this
valuable forage plant under favorable conditions can be
successfully grown in Cuba.

Cowpeas of almost all varieties are successfully grown
in Cuba as they are in the Gulf States of America, where
the climate, aside from cold rains and frost in winter,
is somewhat similar to Cuba. Both the peas and the
pea-vine hay command good prices throughout the year,
in the local markets of the cities; hence the cultivation
of this excellent forage plant and vegetable, especially
when grown with corn, is in common practice.

A variety of the cowpea, known as La Carita, is very
popular in Cuba, owing to its large yield, and to the
fact that after a shower of rain it can be planted with
profit any month of the year, with the exception perhaps
of July and August. The carita belongs to the running
or ground covering variety, and if grown with corn will
use the stalks on which to climb, without detriment to
the major crop. The pods are long and filled with peas

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 255

about the size of the small Navy beans of New England.
The color is a cream white, with a little dark stain around
the germ, which gave it the name of Carita or little face.
The pea for table use is excellent, of splendid flavor, and
becomes soft and palatable with an hour's cooking. The
vines make good hay, and the average yield of beans is
about 1200 pounds to the acre, which at prices varying
from five to ten cents per pound forms quite a satisfac-
tory crop.

The kinds of beans grown in Cuba are almost unlim-
ited. Various soils of the Island seem adapted to the
legume family, and many varieties have been introduced
not only from the United States but from Mexico and
Central America. One indigenous bean, the botanical
name for which has not been determined, is found grow-
ing wild along the southern coast of Pinar del Rio. The
pods are well filled, and although the bean is very small
it is nevertheless delicious eating. The running vines
make a perfect mat or surface carpet and yield an abun-
dance of hay, nutritious and greatly liked by stock. The
origin and habits of this bean, and the extent to which
it might be improved by cultivation, are being studied by
the Government Experimental Station at the present
time.

Of all forage and food crops grown in Cuba, there is
none, perhaps, more universally successful than the
peanut. The little Spanish variety, owing to its heavy
production of oil, is popular and very prolific in all parts
of the Island where the soil is sandy.

On the red lands, or those that have a clay basis, the
Virginia peanuts thrive wonderfully well. Unlike the
little Spanish, the Virginia, or larger varieties, are
usually planted in the spring months, and continue grow-
ing all through the summer. The yield of the Virginia
peanut is large, and the hay resulting from the vines,
under favorable conditions, will approximate two tons
or more per acre. This hay is considered one of the best
forage crops, and the field, after the peanuts have been

256 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

removed for market, can be very profitably converted
into a hog pasture, so that the small nuts, and those that
escape the harvester, are turned into excellent account,
and the field is put into splendid condition for the next
planting.

The yield of the Spanish peanut varies according to
conditions of soil, and control of water, anywhere from
40 to 100 bushels per acre. Every bushel of Spanish
peanuts will produce one gallon of oil, the price of which
at the present time exceeds $1. From each bushel of
nuts with the shells ground in, about 20 pounds of splen-
did oil-cake are secured. This, fed to stock, especially
to hogs, in combination with corn or yucca, is undoubtedly
one of the finest foods for fattening and quick growth
that can be found. Peanut-cake readily brings in Ha-
vana from $30 to $40 per ton.

CHAPTER XXV
ANIMALS

Cuba, like the other West Indian Islands, is strangely
poor in its indigenous mammals. The largest wild ani-
mal is the deer, a beautiful creature, resembling much
the graceful Cervidae of the Virginia mountains. It is
in fact a sub-species of the American deer. But these
were imported into Cuba from some unknown place,
and at a time of which there is no record extant. They
are very plentiful throughout nearly all of the thinly
settled sections of Cuba, especially in the Province of
Pinar del Rio, where, in places not hunted, they exhibit
very little fear of man and frequently appear near native
huts in the hills, dra\\Ti there probably through curiosity,
which is one of the weak points of these most beautiful
denizens of the forest.

The abundance of food and absence of cold through-
out the year, as well as the shelter given by the dense
woodland and mountains, has led to their rapid increase.
The game laws also protect them from destruction with
the exception of a brief period during the late fall and
winter.

A peculiar animal knoT^Ti as the Hutia, of which there
are three varieties in Cuba, together with the small ant-
eater, known as the Solenoden, represent the entire native
mammalian fauna of the Island. Hutia is the name
given in Cuba to three species of the Caprimys, which be-
long to this country. The largest of the three is distrib-
uted over the entire Island. It weighs about ten pounds
and is frequently seen in the tree tops of the forest, living
on leaves and tender bark. The other species are only
about half the size of the former. One of these has a

257

258 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

long rat-like tail with which it hangs to limbs of trees, as
does the American opossum. The third species is con-
fined to the Province of Oriente. Outside of Cuba only
two of the Caprimys or Hutias are found, one in the Ba-
hamas, and the other in Jamaica and Swan Island, now
almost extinct. The Hutias are arboreal rodents.
Those of the mountains rear their little families among
the boulders of the tall sierras, where the feeble voices
of the young can often be heard by one who listens care-
fully. Their faint cry is very suggestive of the peep of
little chickens. Hutias are sometimes kept as pets in the
country.

The large rodents, as a new world product, attained
their maximum development a very long while ago, dur-
ing the middle Tertiary period. Since that time the
group has been steadily diminishing, and the extensive
land areas over which they once thronged have under-
gone many changes. The Caprimys are a stranded rem-
nant whose ancestral relations are difficult to trace.

The largest bird of the Island is the Cuban sand-hill
crane (Grus nesiotes). This rather rare representa-
tive of the feathered tribe is found occasionally on grassy
plains surrounding the western end of the Organ Moun-
tains of Pinar del Rio. They are also quite plentiful
along the foothills, and on the grass covered plateaus
just south of the Cubitas Mountains, in Camaguey, where
they were at one time quite tame. These birds are found
also in Mexico and in the United States, and when less
than a year old are excellent eating. They stand about
four feet in height and are only a trifle smaller than the
whooping crane of the western plains of the United States.

The guinea-fowl is one of the most common birds of
Cuba and was introduced by the early Spanish con-
querors who brought it from the Cape Verde Islands,
whence it had been carried from Africa. This bird,
which has exceptional ability in taking care of itself,
while found on nearly every native farm, soon became
wild in Cuba, and is quite plentiful in some of the dense

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 259

forests of the Island, especially in the Province of Cama-
guey, where it occasionally furnished food for the insur-
gents during the War of Independence. The wild
guinea is excellent eating, resembling in size and quality
the prairie chicken once so common on the western
prairies of the United States.

The domestic turkey is, of course, indigenous to al-
most all parts of North and Central America. Of its in-
troduction into Cuba there is practically no record. The
climate of the Island is very congenial to turkeys, hence
far less trouble is found in raising them than in the
United States.

The Cuban ' 'bob-white" with its cheerful note is com-
mon throughout the Island. He is slightly smaller and
darker than the American quail, which some time in the
remote past migrated to Cuba. The game laws of the
Island protect both of these birds quite efficiently, other-
wise they would long ago have been extinguished.

The ubiquitous turkey buzzard is also common in
Cuba and quite as obnoxious as in the southern states of
America.

The little Cuban sparrow hawk, similar to if not iden-
tical with that of the United States, is also found in the
Island, as is also the king bird, which retains his pug-
nacious habits, not hesitating to tackle anything that
flies. Many varieties of the owl are also found in Cuba,
including the large handsome white owl.

The mocking bird of the South, that king of song birds,
to which Linnaeus gave the name of Minus Polyglottus
Orpheus, is usually in evidence with his beautiful song,
if not always in sight. The sweet voiced meadow lark
of the United States also is very common in Cuba.

The wild pigeons, once so plentiful in the United
States, are still found in Cuba. Their roosting places
are in the deep forests. The Province of Camaguey
seems to be their favorite rendezvous. Other pigeons
found in Cuba are the West Indian mourning dove, the
Zenaida dove, and the little Cuban ground dove. An-

260 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

other beautiful representative of the dove family is the
native white crowned pigeon (Columba Leucocephala)
gentle, lovable creatures that make delightful pets for
children. Two specimens of these doves are domiciled in
the Zoological Park at Washington.

Parrots, of course, are indigenous to Cuba. Several
varieties are represented, the largest of which, with its
brilliant green plumage and red head, can be easily
tamed, while its linguistic ability rapidly develops with a
little patience. These birds when not mating fly in
great flocks, sometimes alighting near homes in the
forest, their unmelodious chatter rendering conversation
impossible. The squabs are excellent eating and are
sometimes used for that purpose. Another Cuban par-
rot, the Amazona Leucocephala, makes its nest in holes
excavated in the upper reaches of the royal palm, 50 or
60 feet above the ground.

A striking bird, peculiar to the coastal regions, is the
Cuban oriole ; a black bird with bright yellow shoulders,
rump and tail coverts, the under side of the wings also
yellow. As a general alarmist, he is equal to the cat
bird, also found in Cuba. A little sneaking about the
thicket will lure the oriole from his hiding place and
cause him to scold and revile the intruder. The Cuban
green woodpecker and the white-eyed vireo are also gar-
rulous birds often met in company with the oriole.

One of the most beautiful birds of Cuba is the little
tody, which, with the exception of humming birds that
are also very plentiful, is the smallest of the feathered
inhabitants of the Island. Its length from tip of bill to
tip of tail is only a little over three inches. The entire
back of the bird is a brilliant grass green. On its throat
is a large patch of bright scarlet, bordered by a zone of
white at the angle of the bill, replaced toward the pos-
terior end of the patch by a bright blue. The under
parts are white and smoky, while the flanks are washed
with a pale scarlet. This little jewel of a bird may be
found anywhere in Western Cuba, usually in low shrub-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 261

bery, bordering some path, from which he invites your
attention by a song that recalls faintly the note of the
kingfisher.

Scattered throughout the island and especially plenti-
ful in the Sierras, is the Cuban lizard-cuckoo, knowTi to
the natives as the arriero. He is about twenty inches in
length, the long broad tail representing about three-fifths
while the bill will add almost two inches. The arriero
is one of the most interesting members of Cuban avi-
fauna. His color is a pale greyish brown with a metal-
lic flush. The throat and the anterior part of the under-
surfaces are grey, washed with pale brown, while the
posterior portion is a pale reddish brown. The large,
broad tail feathers are tipped with white and crossed by
a broad band of black.

He is a veritable clown, of curious and inquiring turn
of mind, and extremely amusing in his antics. Having
responded to your call, he will inspect you carefully, mov-
ing his tail sidewise, or cocking it up like a wren. He
may slink away like a shadow, or he may spread his
wings and timible over himself, chattering as if he had
discovered the most amusing thing in the world, and was
bubbling over with mirth.

One of the most strikingly colored birds in Cuba is the
trogon. The top of his head is metallic purple, the en-
tire back metallic green, while the under parts are pale
grey, a little lighter at the throat. The posterior and
under tail coverts are scarlet, while the primaries of the
wing, and part of the secondaries, are marked with white
bars. The outer tail feathers also are tipped with broad
bands of white, the combination giving to the bird a
strikingly brilliant appearance. The Trogon is inclined
to conceal his beauty in thickets, and rarely displays him-
self in the open. His call suggests that of the northern
cuckoos.

Water birds are very plentiful, especially in the shal-
low lagoons that for hundreds of miles separate the main-
land from the outlying islands. The largest and most

262 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

striking of these is probably the flamingo, great flocks
of which may be seen in the early morning, spreading
out like a line of red-coated soldiers along the sand spits,
or restingas, that frequently reach out from shore a mile
or more, into the shallow salt waters. The flamingos are
very shy, seldom permitting man to approach within 200
yards.

Another beautiful water bird is the Sevilla that reaches,
with maturity, about the size of the Muscovy cock. Un-
til nearly a year old this beautiful inhabitant of the
lagoons is snow white, after which his color changes to
a bright carmine red. In the unfrequented lagoons he
is still very plentiful. In the same waters are found
many varieties of the heron family, including the much
sought for little white heron, with its beautiful plumage,
from which the aigrettes so popular among women as
ornaments are obtained.

One of the most peculiar and conspicuous birds in
Cuba is the ani, found everywhere throughout the Island
where there are cattle, even approaching the outskirts of
large cities. The ani is about the size of a small crow,
jet black in color with a metallic sheen, and carries a pe-
culiar crest on the upper mandible. It lives almost en-
tirely on ticks or other parasitic insects that trouble cat-
tle. It will sit perched on the back of an ox, hunting in-
dustriously for ticks, which process or favor is appar-
ently enjoyed by the patient beasts.

CHAPTER XXVI
STOCK RAISING

Some of the men who followed Christopher Columbus
across the Atlantic at the close of the 15th century were
accustomed to stock raising in Spain, and all of them
realized the value of the horse to the mounted warrior,
armed with long lance or sharp cutlass, with which he
could ride down the poor naked Indians of Cuba. They
had come from Seville and the southern provinces, and
had perhaps acquired their appreciation of the horse
from the Arab, who made this noble animal his compan-
ion, and to all intents and purposes a member of his
family.

The conquerors brought with them their animals and
thus the equine race was introduced for the first time
into the Western Hemisphere. All that came from Spain
in the early days were of Arabian stock, which, although
permitted to deteriorate, has still retained many of the
characteristics of the parent stock, among which are en-
durance and gentleness. A colt that has always run wild
over the ranges of Cuba, can be easily broken to the sad-
dle in a few hours.

Owing to the abundance of food throughout the year,
and to the absence of sleet, snow or cold rains, that some-
times chill and retard the growth of young colts, this
Island is probably quite as well adapted to the breeding
and raising of horses as any place in the world. Dur-
ing the first Government of Intervention, a large num-
ber of American horses were brought to Cuba by the
Army of Occupation, and in spite of this abrupt change
of climate and conditions, cavalry officers stated that
never before had they found a place where their mounts

263

264 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

seemed to thrive so well, and to remain so free from
disease. Out of two thousand horses stationed at Camp
Columbia, in the year 1901, only three were found in
the hospital, two of these suffering from accidents, and
the third, from a mild case of imported glanders.

The native horses, although smaller than the Ameri-
can, are hardy, gentle and easily kept, and unless taught
to eat corn, invariably prefer the rich grasses to which
they have always been accustomed. This native stock,
when crossed with good Kentucky, Missouri or Montana
stallions, produces really excellent service animals, es-
pecially for the saddle.

Since the accession of General Menocal to the Presi-
dency, and especially since his appointment of General
Sanchez Agramonte as Secretary of Agriculture, rapid
strides have been made in the introduction of fine thor-
oughbred stallions, most of them gaited saddle animals
that have been imported from Kentucky, and brought to
Cuba for breeding purposes. These animals have been
distributed by the Department of Agriculture throughout
the different provinces, and improvement in resulting
colts is already beginning to be apparent.

Probably one half of the native horses of Cuba in 1895
were killed or rendered useless during the War of Inde-
pendence, which began in that year. This, of course,
was a great loss to the Island, but so rapid is the rate of
increase in this balmy climate that horses have again be-
come quite plentiful and consequently cheap.

Registered in the Department of Agriculture, in the
year 1918, for the Province of Oriente, were 218,876
horses; in Santa Clara were 212,985; in Camaguey 129,-
023; in Matanzas, 108,900; in Havana, 94,214, and in
Pinar del Rio, 63,021; making a total of 827,019 reg-
istered in the Island.

The small, pony-built, light stepping, sure-footed
horses, of the original or native stock of the Island, es-
pecially in the interior, are quite cheap; mares selling
in some places at from $10 to $20, while geldings of the

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 265

same grade will bring from $20 to $40, and stallions from
$25 to $50.

Nevertheless, a well gaited and spirited native saddle
horse, in the City of Havana, will find a ready market
at anywhere from $75 to $200. Imported saddle ani-
mals, well gaited, and from good stables, bring in Cuba
prices varying from $300 to $2,000; the price varying
with the merit of the animal and the fancy of the pur-
chaser. With splendid grasses, balmy climate, and ex-
cellent water, there is no reason why the breeding of
horses in Cuba, especially those types suited for fancy
saddle animals, military remounts and polo ponies,
should not be profitable and successful in every sense of
the word.

Good mules are always in demand in Cuba, although
not many are bred in the Island, and most of them up to
the present have been imported from Missouri, Texas
and other sections of the United States. Under normal
conditions a pair of good mules in Havana will bring
from $250 to $500. Scattered throughout the country in
1918 were approximately 61,000 mules, and about 3,250
asses.

When the first Spanish settlers, most of whom were
lured to Cuba through the hope of finding gold in quanti-
ties never realized, saw the great, broad and rich grass
covered savannas of Camaguey, dreams of riches from
cattle raising with far more promise than the fortunes
expected from easily found gold tempered their disap-
pointment, and laid the foundation for future pros-
perity.

A few cattle were brought over from Spain in the first
expeditions and left at Santo Domingo, where they at
once began to multiply and thrive. From this fountain
head, Diego Velasquez brought several boatloads to Cuba,
that were distributed among his friends in the seven cities
of which he was the founder.

The original cattle were of a type peculiar to Spain
in the 16th century; rather small, well shaped and hand-

266 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

some animals, of a light brown or dark jersey color, sim-
ilar to that of the wild deer in shade, and usually carry-
ing a dark streak along the spine, with a rather heavy
cross of black at the shoulders. Although almost no care
was given to these animals, and no attempt made at se-
lection or improvement of the breed, they continued to
multiply and thrive on the rich native grasses of the
savannas throughout the Island.

In 1895, there were approximately 3,000,000 head reg-
istered in Cuba by the Spanish colonial authorities.
Beef was then plentiful and cheap, and Cuba was sup-
plying the British colonies of the Bahama Islands with
nearly all the meat consumed. Most of it was shipped
from the harbor of Nuevitas across the banks to Nassau.

With the beginning of the War of Independence, as in
all wars, food was a matter of prime necessity; hence the
great herds of cattle roaming the fields of the eastern
provinces became at once legitimate prey, and since there
was no commissary department, and but little effort made
on either side to protect beef from unnecessary slaughter,
thousands of head of cattle were killed, not alone for
food, but by each army, the insurgent and the Spanish,
in order to prevent the other side from getting the benefit
of the food. With this reckless method of destruction,
at the expiration of the struggle in 1898, 85%, perhaps
90%, of the cattle of the Island had been wiped out of
existence.

The shortage of beef, of course, was serious, and at
the beginning of the first Government of Intervention
steps were taken by General Brooke and later by Gen-
eral Wood to encourage the immediate importation of
cattle from any locality where they might happen to be
available. Hence cattle were imported indiscriminately
from Texas, Louisiana, Florida and Venezuela, with the
natural result that the breeding animals of succeeding
years were composed of a very mixed and ill selected lot.

With the installation of the Republic, measures were

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 267

taken to remedy this misfortune, and to improve the
breed. Many private individuals who had always been
interested in the cattle industry imported thoroughbred
bulls from the United States. Quite a number of Amer-
ican stock raisers, mostly from Texas and other southern
states, attracted by the stories of fine cheap grazing lands,
with fresh grass throughout the year, came to Cuba and
settled in Camaguey. Many of these brought with them
a stock of better animals.

When General Menocal assumed the Presidency in
1913 the further importation of good cattle was encour-
aged, and an Agricultural Exposition or Stock Fair was
held at the Quinto de Molinos, or Botanical Gardens in
Havana, where stock breeders from all over the world
vied with each other in the exhibition of fine, thorough-
bred animals of many kinds. An excellent exhibition
of Jerseys, imported in 1901 by Joaquin Quilez, then
Governor of the Province of Pinar del Rio, represented
a fine grade of milch cows.

Cattle came not only from the United States, but
crossed the Atlantic from Holland and from France,
while a very attractive breed of handsome, dark red cat-
tle, were placed on exhibition by the late Sir William
Van Home, which he had previously imported from the
Western coast of Africa. Most interesting, perhaps, of
all, were several specimens of the Zebu, a large variety
of the sacred cattle of India, that had previously been in-
troduced from abroad, and kept at the Experimental Sta-
tion at Santiago de las Vegas.

The Zebu, although of somewhat self-willed disposi-
tion, and with an inclination to jump any fence under
seven feet, is nevertheless proving a very important addi-
tion to the breeding stock of Cuba. This largest speci-
men of the bovine species, standing at the shoulders some
six feet in height, when crossed with the ordinary cow
of Cuba, produces a much larger and stronger animal,
with this very important advantage, that at two years of

268 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

age, a weight equivalent to or in excess of the ordinary
three years old, is attained, while the quality of the meat
is in no way impaired.

The Zebu is not only valuable for beef breeding pur-
poses but is probably unequaled in the capacity of a
draft ox. A pair of Zebus, when yoked to a cart or
wagon, will drop into a trot with an ordinary load at day-
light in the morning, and without serious effort make
fifty miles by sunset. The strength of these animals is
almost incredible, and the cross with the common cow
will undoubtedly furnish a valuable adjunct to success-
ful stock growing in the Republic.

In all stock raising enterprises, plenty of fresh water
is absolutely essential. Rivers or running streams are
most desirable acquisitions to any ranch. Where these
cannot be found, wells are usually sunk and water met
at depths varying from twenty to two hundred feet. In
the foothills and mountainous districts, never failing
streams are found in abundance.

There still remain hundreds of thousands of acres of
well watered and well drained lands, that possess all the
conditions desired for stock raising. Much of the ter-
ritory formerly devoted to grazing has been recently
planted in sugar cane, owing to the high prices of sugar,
resulting from the European War. In spite of this fact
there are still large tracts in nearly every province of
the Island that not only are available for stock raising,
but would, if sown in grasses and forage plants, pro-
duce, under proper management, returns per acre quite
as satisfactory as those derived from sugar cane.

In both Havana and Matanzas Provinces good lands
command a price that is rather prohibitive for grazing
purposes. But in Pinar del Rio, and the three large
eastern provinces of the Island, there are still extensive
tracts, both in the level sections, and in the foothills, that
are ideal grazing lands, and if not absorbed in the near
future by the cane planters, these lands will eventually,
owing to their advantages for stock raising, yield revenues

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 269

quite as satisfactory as those of any other in the Re-
public.

These lands can be secured at the present time, in large
tracts, at prices varying from $15 to $50 per acre, and
if properly administered, will easily yield an annual
net return from 25% to 50% on the investment. One
prominent stock raiser in the Province of Camaguey, an
American who, starting with nothing, has built up a
very tidy fortune in the last ten years, stated that his
return in the year 1918 represented a profit of 104%
on his capital invested. This excellent showing, how-
ever, may have resulted from the practice of buying calves
at low figures that have been dropped in less advan-
tageous sections, and removing them to rich potreros
where they were quickly fattened for the Havana market.

Cuba at the present time is importing approximately
$10,000,000 worth of pork and pork products annually,
notwithstanding the fact that this Island, owing to ex-
ceptional conditions for raising hogs economically, could
not only supply the local demand, but could and will
ultimately, export pork products to all of the Latin Amer-
ican countries bordering on the Caribbean Sea and the
Gulf of Mexico.

Hogs breed twice a year in Cuba, and the climate,
free from extremes of heat or cold, enables probably a
larger percentage of the young to be brought to maturity,
with less care and less risk, than in any section of the
United States. Science today has rendered it possible
to eliminate the danger from contagious disease to pork;
hence it is that raising of small stock, especially hogs,
under the supervision of intelligent management, is bound
to prove one of the most remunerative industries of this
country.

Hogs were introduced into Cuba from Spain by the
early Spanish settlers, but no effort was made either to
improve the breed by selection or even to prevent its re-
trograding through lack of care and good food. Nearly
all hogs raised in Cuba, even at the present time, are

270 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

permitted to run in droves in the forests and foothills of
the thinly settled sections, as did their ancestors four
centuries ago.

Even the owners of these droves have but little idea
of the number of hogs belonging to them. Monteros,
or forest men, are hired to herd them, which is done with
the assistance of dogs. The hogs in this way are fol-
lowed from place to place where the forests may furnish
natural food for the mothers and their progeny. As a
rule, at evening each day, the montero or herder, in order
to keep up a partial contact between him and his drove,
carries a few ears of com slung over his shoulder in a
sack, or to the saddle of his horse. This he shells and
drops as he rides along the narrow trails of the forest,
uttering at the same time a peculiar cry or call, heard in
the mountain jungles of the hog districts, when the
monteros are coaxing their herds out into the open, so
that they may catch a glimpse of them before they dodge
back into the leafy glades of the interior.

This semi-savage breed of hogs of course would cause
a smile if seen on a first-class stock farm in the United
States. He is usually black in color, long and lank, re-
sembling very much the "razor back," once common in
the southern part of the United States. He is prolific, a
good fighter, and hustles for his own living, since noth-
ing is provided for him excepting what he picks up in
the forest. This, however, is pretty good feed.

The royal palm that covers many of the hillsides and
slopes of the long mountain chains throughout Cuba,
produces a small nut called palmiche, which furnishes a
never-failing food and aids the stock man greatly in
raising hogs. The palmiche, picked up by the animals
at the base of the palms or cut by the monteros, who with
the assistance of a rope easily climb these tall smooth
barked ornaments of the forest, will keep animals in
fairly good condition throughout the year.

The palmiche, however, although only about the size
of the kernel of a hazel nut, is very hard, and much of it

i

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 271

is rather indigestible. This nut, when ground and
pressed yields about 20% of excellent oil, either for lubri-
cating or commercial purposes, while the residue of the
nut, or pressed cake of the palmiche, from which the
worthless part has been separated previous to grinding,
owing to its rich content of protein and oil, furnishes an
easily digested and splendid food.

The recent demand for oil has resulted in the intro-
duction of a number of presses in Cuba since the be-
ginning of the European War, and the palmiche cake
is being placed on the market as a stock food product.
In this form it is quite probable that a valuable adjunct
will soon be added to the other natural foods of the
country.

Palmiche fed pork in Cuba, or for that matter wher-
ever it has been eaten, is considered a greater delicacy
than any other pork in the world, and in this Island is
preferred to either turkey or chicken. This is owing to
the peculiar nutty flavor which the palmiche imparts to
the meat of the forest-bred hog. Young palmiche fed
pork, known as lechon, roasted over a hardwood or char-
coal fire, during the holidays of Christmas and New
Year's in Havana, readily retails at 75^ to $1 per
pound, and little roasting pigs at that time of the year
will bring from five to ten dollars each.

The pork industry, however, in Cuba, to be really
successful should be conducted along lines similar to
those of the United States. Excellent food can be pro-
vided for hogs, fresh and sweet at all times of the year,
simply by planting the various crops with reference to
the season and period needed for feeding. Among those
foods best adapted to sows and growing pigs in Cuba are
peanuts, cow peas, sweet potatoes, sugar cane, calabasa
or pumpkins, chufas, malanga, and other root crops pe-
culiar to the country. For topping off, or putting into
condition, shoats for six weeks before being sent to mar-
ket should be fed on either corn or yucca, or both.

The latter, yucca, is one of the best root crops growTi in

272 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

the Island for fattening hogs. The tuber, some three or
four feet in length, with a diameter of three or four
inches, comes from a closely jointed plant that at ma-
turity varies in height from three to five feet. The stalk
of these plants, if cut into short joints, and planted in
furrows about three feet apart, produces its crop of
tubers in about twelve months, although the yield will
increase for five or six months after this. The yucca
tubers are covered with a cocoanut brown peel, while
the inside, consisting of almost pure starch, is white as
milk.

Yucca will produce a splendid, firm fat on pork in a
very short time, and has the advantage over corn in the
fact that the weight of the crop, from an acre of land,
varies from four to twelve tons, according to the quality
of the soil, and hogs delight in harvesting the crop them-
selves.

At the Experimental Station at Santiago de las Vegas
may be seen many excellent breeds of hogs that were
introduced from the United States some years ago.
Among these are found the Duroc or Jersey Red, the
Hampshire, the Chester White, the Berkshire and Tam-
worth, all of which under the favorable conditions found
at the Station have done remarkably well. Interesting
experiments on the various foods of the Island, and their
adaptability as food for hogs, are being carried on there
throughout the year. Those breeds which seem to give
the greatest promise, up to the present, are the Duroc and
the Hampshire. Some very interesting animals have
been produced from crosses between Hampshires, Durocs
and Tamworths, the shoulder mark or saddle band of
the Hampshire being prominent in all of its crosses.

The population of Cuba is rapidly approaching three
millions, and no people in the world are more addicted
to the use of pork in all its forms than those not only
in Cuba but in all the Latin American Republics lying
to the west and south of the Caribbean. The hog in-
dustry at the present time does not begin to supply the

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 273

local demand, and probably will not for some years to
come. Fresh pork before the European war seldom
varied throughout the year from the standard price of
ten cents per pound on the hoof, while hams imported
from the United States brought twenty-five cents at
wholesale in Havana.

With the use of dams and turbines, power can be easily
secured from the many mountain streams with which to
furnish refrigeration and cold storage, and there is no
reason why a pork-packing industry, combining the cur-
ing of hams, shoulders, etc., should not be carried on
successfully. Branches of large packing houses in the
United States have long imported their hams and shoul-
ders, in brine, afterwards smoking them in Cuba. Ex-
perts in pork packing soon discovered that most of the
small hard woods of the Cuban forests were splendidly
adapted for smoking meat, giving it a piquant and aro-
matic flavor, pleasing to the taste.

With the large local demand for hams, shoulders,
bacon, etc., a profitable business is assured from the be-
ginning, while the proximity of so many Latin Repub-
lics south and west of the Caribbean render the prospect
of the export trade very promising.

Ownng to the genial climate, sheep in Cuba, lacking
the necessity for wool with which to retain warmth, very
naturally lose it within a comparatively few years. Mut-
ton, however, always commands a good price in the local
markets, hence it is that the raising of sheep for food,
especially by those small farmers who are close to large
markets, will always yield a satisfactory return.

The large hotels of Havana, especially during the
tourist season, are compelled to supply mutton of good
quality to their guests, and since the local supply is not
sufficient, a considerable amount of this excellent food
is imported, dressed, from the United States. In this
latitude, where green grass may be found in abundance
throughout the year, sheep may be profitably raised and
used in many ways. They are close grazers and wiU

274 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

keep down the heavy growth of grass in citrus fruit
groves, and also along the roadsides and in the surface
drains that border hundreds of miles of automobile drives
scattered throughout the Island.

Thousands of dollars are expended by the Department
of Public Works every year in cutting out this rank
growth of grass, so that the flow of water in the ditches
may not be impeded. This work could undoubtedly be
done by sheep, and a great deal of manual labor be
saved, if the system of roadside grazing was once intro-
duced into this country. Sheep are found in small num-
bers throughout all parts of the Island, and up to the
present the Government has made no attempt to register
them.

So far no discrimination has been used in introducing
those breeds of sheep best suited for the production of
mutton. That which the Island has is usually tender,
and of excellent flavor, and if small farmers would take
the trouble to import good rams from desirable breeds in
the United States, the raising of mutton, even as a side
issue, would add greatly to the revenue of farms located
near large consuming centers.

The Republic of Mexico for many years has derived
a very large revenue from the sale of goat skins, most of
which were purchased by the New England shoe fac-
tories, while the by-products in the form of salted and
sun dried meat, fat and other materials, always command
a market. Recent years of devastation, however, have
practically annihilated all of the great herds once so
profitable, since for three or four years they furnished
food to the roving bands of different contestants in that
unfortunate country.

In the various mountain chains, foothills and fertile
ravines of Cuba are hundreds of thousands of acres
of forest land, in much of which sufficient sunlight en-
ters to permit of new growth, the tender shoots of which
are preferred by both goats and deer to any other food

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 275

in the world. More than all, the goat is by nature a hill
climber, and is never content until he gains the nearest
ascent from which he can look down on his companions
below.

For many years to come, most of these vast ranges will
be unfenced and free, and the keeping of the goats will
require nothing more than a herder with a couple of
good dogs for every thousand head. With this excel-
lent food that can serve no other purpose, and the splen-
did water of mountain streams, the goat industry in
Cuba could not fail to be profitable, and yet the raising
of goats has never been considered there commercially.

Under the management of men who are familiar with
the raising of goats for their hides, and by-products,
there is no reason why this industry should not assume
importance in Cuba, especially since these animals are
invaluable for cleaning out undergrowth economically
and effectively.

Although it is a well established fact that the Angora
goat will thrive in any country that is not low and damp,
with the exception a few pairs of Angoras, that were in-
troduced at the Experimental Station at Santiago de las
Vegas some years ago, the breeding of this variety of
goat has never attracted the attention which it deserves.
Those of the station, although not located under the ideal
conditions which prevail in the mountains, have neverthe-
less fulfilled the reputation which this animal enjoys in
other parts of the world.

The Angora, unlike the sheep, does not lose or drop
its beautiful silky fleece when introduced into a warm cli-
mate. It is, however, desirable to shear the mohair twice
a year instead of once, in order to avoid loss that might
come from pushing its way through heavy underbrush
in the mountains. In raising or breeding this variety
of goat, where the long fine fleece is the chief source of
income, provision should be made for rounding up and
coralling the herd each night, in order to insure against

276 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

the possibility of loss from dogs or theft, although the
goat himself is an excellent fighter, and stoutly resents
the intrusion of any enemy.

Under favorable circumstances the annual increase of
kids will amount to 100% of the number of ewes in the
flock. The young bucks, of course, when a year old
may be sold at a profit, as is the ordinary goat, but since
the finest yield of hair comes from the younger animals, it
would seem ill advised to dispose of them until at least
five or six years old.

The average price of a good angora ewe for breeding
purposes is about $15, and the value of the mohair has
been increasing steadily for the past ten years. Its price,
of course, depends on the length and fineness of the fleece,
and varies at the present time from 75^ to $1 per pound.
When it is considered that a good angora will produce
five or six pounds of fleece each year, and that the entire
expense is practically that of herding and clipping, the
profit of the business is apparent. On the basis of a six-
pound yield to each goat, and an average price of 83 /4^, a
revenue of $12,000 would be derived from a herd of 2,400
goats that would cost $36,000; or in other words the net
returns would exceed 25% on the capital invested.

Aside from a sufficient amount of land on which to es-
tablish night corrals, and the purchase of a few good
collie dogs, there need be no other initial expense than
that of the purchase of breeding animals themselves.
Good herders can be readily secured at a salary of $50
per month and the feeding range is not only free but prac-
tically unlimited.

When it is considered that the angora, when living
on high lands, with plentiful food and water, is free from
disease, and that the capital stock is multiplying at the
rate of 50% per year, with an overhead expense that may
be considered as almost nothing, and an absolutely as-
sured market at good prices for the mohair, the raising
and breeding of angora goats would seem to be a very
profitable investment in Cuba.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 277

The deer of Cuba, while resembling in color, general
form and configuration of antlers the deer of Florida, is
somewhat smaller in size, the average height of the buck
at the shoulders being only about three feet. Although
hunted considerably during the open season, they are still
very plentiful in Cuba, and if not chased by dogs soon
become quite tame.

If deer parks or reserves were established in the moun-
tains where these animals could be confined, cared for
and bred, a market for venison could undoubtedly be
found in the United States, while many city parks and
zoological gardens would find them interesting and orna-
mental as an exhibit of the Cervidae family from Cuba.

CHAPTER XXVII
POULTRY: BEES: SPONGES

Notwithstanding the fact that several millions a year
are expended by the people of the Republic in bringing
poultry and eggs to Cuba, no steps were taken towards
what might be termed systematic poultry raising until
American colonists began experimenting with different
breeds brought from the United States during the first
Government of Intervention. And even since that time
there are very few who have carried on really scientific ex-
periments towards determining what varieties of chickens
may give the best results in this country.

In regard to breeds it would seem that the Rhode Island
Red has the preference in Cuba, although many others,
including the Wyandotte, Plymouth Rock and Orpington,
as well as the Black Minorcan and other Mediterranean
breeds, have their advocates here as in the United States.

The native hen of the Island sprang probably from
some Mediterranean breed, that through lack of care has
sadly degenerated. She is rather prolific as a layer, how-
ever, and asks no assistance in finding her own food, nor
will a quarter of a mile flight give her the slightest diffi-
culty.

The one breed that has been given a very high degree
of attention in Cuba is the fighting cock, whose value may
run anywhere from $5 to $100 or more. On these is
bestowed more care than is received by any prize chicken
in the north. They are serviceable, of course, only for
purposes of sport, fighting chickens being a favorite pas-
time of the country people in all Latin American coun-
tries. The native hen of Cuba, when crossed with well
bred Rhode Island Red or Plymouth Rock roosters, pro-

278

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 279

duces a very good all around chicken, which will thrive
even under adverse conditions.

In the fall of 1915, President Menocal imported from
the United States several thousand excellent hens for ex-
perimental and breeding purposes. These are installed
in modern poultry houses on his farm, "El Chico," only a
few miles from the City of Havana, and have done very
well.

Turkeys, too, do remarkably well in Cuba when given
free range, and they are not subject to those ills which
result from sleet, snow and chilling winds that decimate
the little ones in most parts of the United States.

Cuba seems to be the natural home of the Guinea hen
since those foods which this fowl likes best are found in
all parts of the Island, and in many sections Guineas
have escaped from domestication, taken to the forest and
formed great flocks of both white and grey varieties.
These furnish splendid wing shooting to those who enjoy
the sport.

In view of the rapidly increasing demand for Guinea
pullets in all of the big hotels in the United States, where
they seem to be taking the place of the prairie chicken of
the past, it would seem that the raising of Guinea hens for
the American market should certainly prove extremely
profitable. Fields of the short or white millet planted on
any farm will serve to keep them satisfied, and at the
same time diminish the tendency to wander away from
home. In a country where neither shelter or food is
needed, and where the birds cormnand very remunerative
prices, Guinea raising ought to be tempting.

Very few have gone into poultry raising along scien-
tific or intelligent lines, which seems rather odd when we
consider that fresh eggs vary in price from four to five
cents, under normal conditions, all the year round, and
chickens of the most scrawTiy type bring from sixty cents
to one dollar.

The poultry business offers many advantages in Cuba ;
first of which may be mentioned, an excellent local market

280 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

for both chickens and eggs ; second, that green food and
insects may be found in abundance throughout the year ;
that open or wire screen houses alone are necessary for
protection, the necessity for artificial heat being, of
course, non existent.

In a country free from frost and where flowers bloom
more or less continuously throughout the year, we might
expect to find and do find a Bee paradise. Often, in
seeking shelter either from a tropical sun or a threatening
shower, in the shade of one of the Magotes of Pinar del
Rio, or while passing through the deep, rock-walled pass
of the Paredones, in the Sierra de Cubitas, one will find
pools of a strange looking substance in the dust at his
feet. Investigation discloses the fact that it is honey,
fallen from overhanging rocks where wild bees have made
their homes in the cavities above, the warmth of the sun
having melted an overfilled comb so that the honey col-
lected at the foot of the cliff below.

Native wild bees are very plentiful in Cuba, and
strange to say possess no sting, but produce a honey that
is very sweet. During the latter part of the 16th cen-
tury a German variety of bee was introduced, from the
Spanish colony of Saint Augustine, Florida. About the
middle of the 19th century the Italian bee was introduced,
and is probably more productive of honey than any other
in Cuba. With the coming of American colonists in
1900, modern hives were introduced and the business of
gathering and exporting both honey and wax was sys-
tematized for the first time.

Many large apiaries exist, especially in the province
of Pinar del Rio. Those who devote their time to the
culture of bees naturally seek the various localities where
flowers are plentiful, sometimes moving the hives from
one section to another in order to take advantage of the
presence of honey-bearing flowers in various localities.
The bloom of the royal palm, so plentifully scattered over
the Island, especially in those mountainous districts where
the soil is deep and rich, furnishes an excellent food for

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 281

bees, as do the morning glory, the flowering majagua and
hundreds of other plants whose local Spanish names can-
not be interpreted.

In the location of bee colonies the character and quan-
tity of the food is a matter of prime importance. The
honey yielding flowers, on which the bees depend for
their sustenance, vary greatly with the locality, especially
with its proximit>' to the coast or to the mountains. The
sources of wax, too, vary greatly with the location. As
an illustration, foundation comb in Cuba should never
be supplied to bees located near the coast, since experience
has proved that they will build up comb much faster near
the coast without the assistance of artificial foundation.

The quality of honey, too, depends much upon the
nature of the flowers found in any given locality. In the
interior nearly all honey is of excellent quality, while on
the coast, quite a large percentage will lack more or less
in flavor, and is almost subject to danger from fermenta-
tion. It has been noted too that colonies in the interior,
when young queens are available, will swarm, even when
not crowded for room; whereas on the coast bees do not
swarm so readily, probably because they have such an
abundance of wax with which to build comb.

During the month of January bees secure an abun-
dance of food throughout the interior from the Aguinaldo
Blanco, or white morning-glory. On the coast a large
amount of honey is derived from the bloom of a small tree,
not botanically classified, during a short period of seldom
more than a week. In February, throughout the interior,
bees derive large quantities of honey from flowers of the
Rapitingua and from the Mango, while on the coast, dur-
ing this month, food is not abundant.

In March, throughout the interior, the flowers of many
fruit trees, found wild in the forest, give an abundance
of honey, while on the coast the Roble Blanco, or so
called white oak, furnishes food. In April, in the in-
terior, food is derived from many plants then in bloom,
while on the coast the flowers of the Salsa, Pelotajo,

282 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Bacuaya and the Guana Palm furnish an abundance of
food. The months of May and June, in the interior, con-
tribute comparatively few honey yielding flowers, while
on the coast the mangroves, the Guana Palm, and one or
two other plants yield food in great quantities.

In July and August the scarcity of honey bearing flow-
ers continues in the interior while on the coast the Guamo
yields food. In September and October, throughout the
interior, honey is derived from the Toruga and a few other
flowers. On the coast, during these months, the same
flowers yield honey but in less quantity. In the months
of November and December, throughout the interior, a
heavy flow of honey is derived from a plant known as the
Bellflower, while on the coast at this season, food is scarce.

Where groves of citrus fruit abound excellent honey is
derived from the flowers of the orange and grape fruit
throughout much of the winter.

As a result of experience in apiculture during the past
fifteen years, $2 per hive is the average annual income
derived when located under favorable circumstances.
One bee keeper who cares for a colony of 1200 hives has
found that by adding 25 to 30 pounds of sugar towards
the support of each hive, during the months when food is
scarce, this average of $2 per hive in annual profit is
increased to $5 and even more.

The exportation of wax for the fiscal year 1916-17
amounted to approximately 1,300,000 pounds, valued at
$340,000. Of this amount about a million pounds was
exported to the United States, while 300,000 pounds went
to Great Britain. In the same year over 12,000,000
pounds of honey were shipped abroad, valued at $650,-
000. Nearly 10,000,000 pounds of this went to the
United States, Great Britain taking the larger part of the
remainder.

Most of the honey exported from Cuba is strained and
sells in bulk for about five cents per pound. To those
fond of bees, apiculture in Cuba will always form for the
settler a source of added pleasure and profit, especially

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 283

in those sections where coffee, cacao and citrus fruit form
the chief source of income.

Next to the Bahama Islands, surrounded as they are by
hundreds of square miles of shoal water, the shores of
Cuba probably produce more good sponges than any other
part of the western hemisphere. In the quiet waters pro-
tected by out-lying barrier reefs that in places stretch
for hundreds of miles along the shores of Cuba, many
varieties of sponges are found. The longest of the
sponge zones is found in the shallow waters protected by
the Islands and reefs that stretch along the north coast of
Cuba from Punta Hicaco opposite Cardenas, to the harbor
of Nuevitas, some 300 miles east. Both sponges and
green turtles are found here but never have been exten-
sively hunted except by the Bahama Islanders, who be-
fore the inauguration of the Cuban revenue service used
to sneak across the old Bahama Channel in the darkness
of the night and back of the uninhabited keys reap rich
rewards in the sponge fields of the northern coast.

Batabano on the south coast, opposite the city of Ha-
vana, is the great center of the sponge fisheries that cover
the shallow flats between the mainland and the Isle of
Pines and extend from the Bay of Cochinos in the east
to the extreme western terminus of the Island at Cape
San Antonio.

The domestic consumption of sponges in Cuba is very
large and in the year 1916-17 only 261,800 pounds were
exported which had a value of $230,000.

CHAPTER XXVIII
PLACES OF HISTORICAL INTEREST

To the lover of romance or student of history, few spots
in the western hemisphere, perhaps, have greater charm
and interest than Morro Castle, high perched on the
promontory that guards the eastern entrance of Havana
Harbor. Seen at early dawn from the open port of an
entering steamer, its great, rugged, picturesque bulk
seems to assemble from the spectral mists of a legendary
past, while all those intensely dramatic scenes of which
El Morro has been the center, pass before one like the
dreamy reality of a moving picture play.

Resurrected from the tales of centuries, gone and al-
most forgotten, one sees the lonely old watch tower that
back in the early days of the 16th century stood guard
on the hill top of Morro, so that the pirates and cruel
rovers of the sea during those days of greed, lust and
crime, could not take the little community of Havana un-
awares. Then come the later days, when the ever re-
curring wars of Europe cast their ugly shadows over
even remote points on the western shore of the Atlantic,
and corsairs of foreign nations were ever anxious to
pounce on the Pearl of the Antilles, and seize within the
harbor some of the rich Spanish galleons, laden with
Aztec gold and loot.

Through this panorama of the past comes the picture of
England's fleet of 200 ships manned by 32,000 men under
Albemarle and Pococke, lying in a semicircle off the en-
trance of the harbor, with old Morro now well equipped
for battle. Its thick walls, rugged embattlements, fight-
ing turrets, embrasures, emergency bridges, powder maga-
zines, store rooms, ammunition dumps, secret passages

and dark dungeons, and bristling guns, were Spain's

284

PABLO DESVERNINE.

Born in Havana in 1854, and educated at the University of
Havana and at Columbia University, New York, Pablo Desvernine
y Galdos has long ranked among the foremost members of the
Cuban bar. During General Brooke's Military Governorship at
the beginning of the first American intervention he was Secretary
of Finance; he was President of the Agricultural Expositions of
1911 and 1912; was Minister to the United States in 1913; and
in 1914 was made by President Menocal Secretary of State. Since
1900 he has been Professor of Civil Law in the University of
Havana. He is the author of several works on Civil and Interna-
tional Law.

»

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 285

chief bulwark in the defense of Havana. Solid shot
and shell from a thousand guns crisscrossed between sea
and land, and in the center of the turmoil, defending the
fort and the honor of Spain, stood one courageous young
officer, Commander Luis Velasco, surrounded by a little
group of volunteers, who had sworn to hold the fort or
die in its defense.

Then, after a month of continuous fighting, came the
note from the British, stating that El Morro was under-
mined and an offer of 24 hours in which to surrender,
and Velasco's reply, in which he informed his enemy that
the match might be applied and the walls blowTi up, but
within the breach he would be found still defending the
castle.

The mine was exploded and the south wall torn asun-
der, while Velasco, fighting to the last, received the wound
that sent him over the Great Divide and soon brought to
an end Havana's defense against the British. Imagina-
tion easily recalls the salute of cannon on the following
day, announcing the death of one of Spain's most courage-
ous fighters, while every shot of the defending guns was
echoed by one of the British ships, firing as a tribute to the
courage of the young officer who had defied their entire
fleet for nearly a month.

Morro was begun in 1589 by the Italian engineer,
J. Bautista Antonelli, and completed in 1597. Little
change has oc-curred during the last two centuries, and
its rugged old walls will probably continue to resist the
winter storms of the Gulf for centuries to come. Many
of Cuba's patriots and heroic figures have been confined
in the dungeons of Morro, including the first President of
the Republic, that kind hearted, genial old gentleman of
letters, Don Tomas Estrada Palma, who died the victim
of base ingratitude on the part of men for whose freedom
and happiness he had devoted all of the best years of his
life.

El Morro is still occupied, as in the olden days, by the
coast artillery of Cuba, and is well worth a trip across

286 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

the bay, where one may pass a pleasant afternoon in inter-
esting introspection, and enjoy at the same time one of
the most delightful views of land and sea from any point
in the West Indies.

Just within the entrance, and on the shore at the foot
of Morro, are located 12 huge, old-time muzzle loading
cannon, known as the Twelve Apostles, that sweep the
opposite shore and were supposed to render impossible the
entrance of any hostile ship, or any effort to cut away the
heavy iron cable that in earlier days stretched across the
entrance to the harbor from El Morro to the fortress of
La Punta on the other side. These curious old iron guns,
dedicated to the saints, were cast by Don Joian Francisco
de Guenes and installed by him in the form of a crescent,
that boded destruction to all invaders from the sea.

Some 500 yards further east, along the coast, is in-
stalled a similar group of cannon, 12 in number, that
forms a battery known as La Pastora, These guns were
made by Francisco Cagigal de la Vega and were placed
on the lower shelf of the outside coast at a point not easily
seen from the sea where they were supposed to render a
forced entrance to the bay practically impossible.

A little further within the narrow entrance to the har-
bor of Havana, and stretching for a half a mile along the
eastern shore, lies the largest and most impressive ancient
fort of the western hemisphere. This fortress is known
as la Cabana, owing to the fact that several cabins once
stood along this ridge, some 200 feet in height, overlook-
ing the City of Havana. La Cabaiia is massive in its
structure, built of stone and earth on the crest of the ridge,
with a steep descent to the water's edge. It is surrounded
on all sides by a wide deep moat, across which no enemy,
even in modern times, could possibly pass. The destruc-
tion of the fort with high explosives and long range guns
would, of course, be easily accomplished, but as an exam-
ple of 18th century military engineering and architecture,
it has no rival in the western world. Some 50 acres are
covered with the walls, patios, surface and underground

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 287

dungeons, prisons, buildings, moats and outer defenses
of this fortification.

The work was begun on November 4, 1763, shortly
after the evacuation of Havana by the British, and was
concluded in 1774. The cost of the work is said to have
been $14,000,000, although much of it was probably done
by slaves, for whose services little or nothing was paid,
nor could the value of their labor be easily estimated.
The same engineer Antonelli, of Italian origin, who built
El Morro, displayed his military genius in the plans of
La Cabana.

The original approach of this fortress was over a
cobbled path that wound up a steep incline, from a little
landing opposite the foot of O'Reilly Street, terminating
finally in the southern opening to the moat. This path
was known during the long years of the Ten Years' War,
and the War of Independence, as "El Camino sin Es-
peranza" or the Road without Hope, since those who
climbed its winding way as prisoners seldom descended
to the plain below, unless in rude boxes on the way to
their last resting place. Even this privilege was denied
to the great majority of political prisoners who w-ere exe-
cuted under the laurels that shade the first part of the
moat.

This wide deep moat, varying in width from sixty to a
hundred feet, with a depth that will average fifty, ex-
tends from one end of the fortress to the other, parallel-
ing the harbor on which it fronts, and separating the
main body of the fortress from w-ell planned and easily
defended outer works. Stone stairways were built at dif-
ferent places against the walls of these outer ramparts to
facilitate the movement of troops in defense of the citadel,
but with wide gaps crossed by wooden bridges that once
knocked away would render the stairways useless to the
enemy.

A few hundred feet beyond the avenue of laurels, and
close by an opening of the wall into the main fortress, a
bronze placque, some six feet by twelve, marks one of

288 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

the places where political prisoners were executed
throughout the latter half of the 19th century. The
bronze was cast in France and represents the execution of
a group of insurgent soldiers. In the left half of the
placque is represented a squad of Spanish soldiers in the
act of firing. Above all floats the figure of an angel en-
deavoring to shield the martyrs who are giving up their
lives for the cause of Cuban Liberty.

Passing through this great eastern wall of the citadel
the visitor steps into an interior, grass covered court, sev-
eral hundred feet in length by eighty or more in width.
Along the southern end of the court may be seen the
remnant of a painted line at about the height of a man's
breast. On this spot, it is said, over a thousand men
were executed during the period of the Ten Years' War
and the three years' War of Independence. Most of the
old line has been dug away by knife points of visitors in
search of bullets that were imbedded in the wall during
the many executions that took place at its base. At the
further, or northern end of this tranquil plot of ground,
heavily barred iron gates cover a series of steps which
formed an emergency entrance from the moat into the
main body of the fortress.

A quarter of a mile further north, along the main ex-
tension of the moat, is a wide wooden bridge that con-
nects the outer ramparts with the citadel, the roadway
passing through a massive and impressive gate or portal,
over which a carved inscription gives the dates in which
the work was begun and concluded, together with the
name of its founders and the Spanish officers in command
at the time of its construction.

The grounds within are ample for military drill and
instruction and are well equipped for the care and main-
tenance of a defending force. When Spain's army re-
tired from Cuba in the last days of 1899, both Cabanas
and Morro presented a very different appearance from
that of today. Long lines of cells had been built into
the stone walls, in which hundreds, if not thousands, of

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 289

political prisoners had spent years of confinement. Each
of these dreary, cheerless abodes was about 30 feet in
width by 60 in length, with a low arched ceiling and mass-
ive barred doors, facing the west.

Each cell was supposed to accommodate fifty men,
and some of them contained long parallel wooden bars,
between which prisoners might swing hammocks if they
were fortunate enough to possess them. Many men
prominent in Cuban political and military life have occu-
pied these cells of Cabanas and also those of its com-
panion. El Morro, General Julio Sanguily, among
others, passed three years in cell No. 57, until, through
the urgent intercession of the American Government, he
was finally set at liberty and permitted to enter the United
States, of which he claimed citizenship.

Stretching along the western face of the fortress is a
wide stone parapet overlooking the bay and the City of
Havana opposite. Planted on its surface is a long line
of interesting brass cannon, ornamented with Spanish
coats of arms and bearing inscriptions that tell of their
making in Seville, at various periods throughout the 18th
century. These cannon are used today for saluting pur-
poses when foreign men of war enter the harbor on
friendly visits.

Near the center of the citadel stood a small stone chapel
that would accommodate 50 or 100 men. Near one end
was built a round pagoda-like altar before which the con-
demned could kneel in prayer during their last night on
earth, since those who entered its tragic portals well knew
that at sunrise the following morning they would face
the firing squad that would pass them on to eternity.
This historically tragic apartment has recently been con-
verted into a moving picture hall for the benefit of Cuban
soldiers who are at present stationed in Cabanas.

Visitors at Cabanas during normal times of peace will
find soldier guides quite willing to carry one down into
the subterranean depths of the fortress and along the
narrow dark passageways that were tunneled into the

290 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

earth, supposedly to detect possible mining operations of
the enemy from the outside. During the War of Inde-
pendence, however, extending from 1895 to 1899, these
underground tunnels were occupied by prisoners, most
of whom dying in the dismal depths were given burials so
shallow by their companions, who must have dug the
graves with their fingers, that in passing along by lantern
light, shortly after American occupation, one frequently
stumbled over skulls and bones that protruded from the
earthen floor below.

The aspect of Cabaiias today, with its well cleaned,
whitewashed walls, with its comfortable officers' quarters
and shady grounds, is quite cheerful, and one can hardly
believe that less than a quarter of a century ago Cabaiias
fortress was one of the modern horrors that cried out to
the civilized world for the abolition of Spanish control
in America.

Occupying the low rocky ledge immediately opposite
Morro is the picturesque little fort known as the Castillo
de Punta, or Fortress on the Point, begun in 1589, and
intended to complete the protection to the entrance of
the harbor. The style of architecture is identical with
that of El Morro, but far less pretentious in size and plan.
The fort is protected from the sea by several outlying
shelves of coral rock, and was at one time surrounded
by a moat as was La Fuerza, the first stone fortress con-
structed in the Western Hemisphere. The walls are not
over 20 feet in height and over the main entrance a tablet
gives the name of Governor-General Tejada, during
whose period of office it was built, together with the date
of its construction.

La Punta afforded efficient aid to its companion El
Morro, on the opposite side of the bay, during the siege
by the English in 1762, and in one corner of the recep-
tion room may be seen the fragment of an iron shell, fired
from the British fleet during the siege of Havana.

La Punta is the headquarters of the Navy Department.
Its presence at the angle of the Prado and the Gulf Ave-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 291

nue, that extends west along the sea shore, is a quiet but
efficient reminder of the olden days when fortresses of
this type formed the only protection enjoyed by the people
who were then residents of the capital of Cuba.

Until the middle of the 19th century, Havana, like
nearly all of the capitals built by Spanish conquerors in
the Western Hemisphere, was a walled city. These walls
were built of coral limestone quarried along the sea front,
which with exposure to the atmosphere becomes quite
hard. The same engineering ability demonstrated by
the builders of El Morro, Cabanas and La Punta, was
evident in the 17th century wall, that had the fortress of
La Punta as its starting point and ran in practically a
straight line south until it reached the shores of the Bay
near its southwestern terminus.

These walls were about 1 2 feet through at the base and
some 20 feet in height. Throughout the entire line was
a series of salients, bastions, flanks and curtains that were
dominant features in the military architecture of those
times. At the top were parapets on which the garrison
gathered for the defense of the City.

Work on the walls began with a body of 9,000 peons
in 1633 and a contribution of $20,000 in gold that was
exacted by order of the Spanish Crown from the rich
treasuries of Mexico in order to hurry its completion.
Only two gates were constructed at first, one of these at
La Punta and the other at the head of Muralla Street,
which latter formed the main or principal entrance for
commercial purposes. A third was afterwards opened
near the corner of the old Arsenal for the convenience of
people engaged in ship building at that point.

Extending along the water front were gradually built
continuations of this wall with coral ledges forming a
solid base. These eventually closed the city on all sides.
This stupendous work was not completed until 1740,
and even after this date occasional additions were made
for purposes of better defense. Although the Spanish
treasury at that time was being filled with gold from

292 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Mexico and Peru, it would seem that the Crown was
very loath to part with the money, and compelled the
colonies of the Western Hemisphere to build their own
defenses and to make whatever improvements they con-
sidered necessary, either from contributions levied on
commerce, or with the use of slaves whose services their
owners were compelled to furnish at their own expense.

Up to the departure of Spain's army from Havana in
1899, sections of the old wall, several blocks in length,
extending through the heart of the city, still remained
intact. These, with their salients, bastions, flanks, etc.,
formed an interesting landmark of the olden days, when
Spanish knights clad in hauberks and hose, donned their
breastplates and plumed helmets to fight against the Brit-
ish who besieged the city in 1763. Today only one short
section remains, a picturesque remnant of the past, with
its little round, dome-covered watch tower still intact.
This is located just north of the Presidential palace on the
crest of the green lawn that slopes away towards La
Punta, about a third of a mile distant.

Near the landing place at the foot of O'Reilly Street,
used by visiting officials and officers of the Navy, stands
La Fuerza. On this site was built the first permanent
or stone defense of the city in 1538. The original walls
and fortifications have seen many changes since that date
but one cannot look at them without recalling the pathetic
figure of Dona Isabel de Bobadilla, who in 1539, on the
drawbridge of La Fuerza, where she and her husband,
Hernando de Soto, had lived, said "Adios," as with an
army of 900 men and 350 horses, he set out for the con-
quest of Florida "and all the territory that might lie
beyond."

Day after day, for more than two years, it is said, this
faithful wife walked the parapets of La Fuerza straining
her eyes to see his flagship arise above the horizon of the
Gulf, and when at last a storm beaten bark brought back
a few survivors of the expedition, whose leader had hoped
to rival if not surpass the deeds of Cortez in Mexico, or

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 293

Pizarro in Peru, she learned that her lord and lover would
return no more, that even his body would never be re-
covered from the yellow waters of the Mississippi. It
was then that her soul, too, sank into the sea of despair
and soon joined its companion on the shore beyond.

The dark dungeons of La Fuerza have held hundreds
of Cuban patriots until death or deportation to Africa
brought relief. The old stone steps descending to the
ground floor are worn into veritable pockets by the tramp
of feet during a continual occupancy of almost 400
years. Every outer wall, parapet, alcove and dungeon,
if able to speak, "could a tale unfold." Now all is silent
save the sound of an occasional bugle, the music of the
artillery band, or the laughter of children playing on the
green lawn that separates it from the Senate Chamber.

The first church built on the Puerto de Carenas, as the
Harbor of Havana was called by the founders of the city,
was of adobe, roofed with yagua from the guana palm.
This was destroyed in 1538 by the pirates. Owing to
the extreme poverty of the inhabitants, and to the fact
that in spite of the wealth controlled by the churches of
the mother country its representatives in the Western
Hemisphere, especially in the City of Havana, were left
to shift for themselves, and very few contributions for
church building came across the seas to Cuba — it being
assumed evidently that the people of a community de-
served no better church than their financial means justi-
fied— it was not until well into the 17th century that
churches were constructed that would at all compare with
the beautiful ecclesiastical structures of Europe. Most
of those of Havana, that were built during the 17th and
18th centuries, resemble, both in material and architec-
ture, the rather heavy, ponderous and so called Gothic
style that prevailed throughout the Latin American
world.

Immediately back of the old Presidential Palace, for-
mer headquarters of the Captains General of Spain,
stands the former convent and church of Santo Domingo,

294 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

whose erection was due to the liberality of the Conde de
Casa Bayamo, whose picture until recently hung in the
sacristy. This building occupied the block of ground
between O'Reilly and Obispo and Mercaderes and San
Ignacio Streets. It was reconstructed in 1738 and be-
came the Royal University of Havana. When the Uni-
versity was transferred to the beautiful site on the heights
of Principe, overlooking Havana from the west, this old
relic of bygone ages, with its ponderous walls and pic-
turesque patio, became the Institute of Havana, where
students still receive that which in English would be
equivalent to a high school education. One portion of
the square is today used as a police station, while the
church itself, with its crude stone figures of saints stand-
ing in relief from the outer walls, is practically abandoned
and will probably soon be removed, for the modest type of
sky-scraper or office building that is becoming quite com-
mon throughout the city.

The cathedral, one of the largest and most imposing of
the churches of Havana, was built by the Jesuits, on the
north edge of the old basin or arm of the Bay that ex-
tended from the present shore along the line of the street
now known as Empedrado, as far west as the little San
Juan de Dios Park. This church is built of the tough
coral limestone used in nearly all of the important build-
ings that stood within the walls of old Havana. The
church, together with the convent and offices in the rear,
is in the form of an irregular quadrangle, covering about
a block of ground, the rear facing the bay itself. The
architecture is of the so-called Gothic that prevails in all
of the old-time churches and convents of the Island.
Owing to the fact that, up to 1899, it contained the bones
of Christopher Columbus, this building has always been
one of the prominent places of interest in the city. A
tablet in marble, over the entrance on San Ignacio Street,
states that it was consecrated by his Excellency, Pedro
Agustin Morel de Santa Cruz, Bishop of Havana, on

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 295

September 8, 1755. This church was declared the Cathe-
dral of Havana in 1789.

The former tomb of Columbus was located in a niche
built for the purpose on the west side of the altar. When
the Spanish forces departed from the Island in 1899, at
the request of the Pope the remains of Columbus were
removed from their long resting place in the Cathedral
and carried to Seville, Spain, where they are at present
interred. The interior of the edifice, although not as
elaborately decorated as are some of the other churches,
is nevertheless imposing and well worth a few moments
pause to the passing visitor.

The San Francisco Convent, one of the oldest churches
of Havana, was completed by Order of the Francis-
cans in 1 591. A part of the hard coral shore that formed
the western edge of the bay, a few blocks south of the
Plaza de Armas, formed a solid foundation for the origi-
nal building which, owing to faulty material and con-
struction, lapsed into ruins in 1719. In 1738 the struc-
ture which now occupies the spot was built under the
direction of Bishop Juan Lazo. The tower of the Church
proper is considered one of the best samples of ecclesiastic
architecture in Havana. This building fronts on Oficios
Street and extends from the Plaza of San Francisco south
for more than a block, parallel with the Bay front. The
old San Francisco convent is the most massive structure
of its kind in Havana. Its long lofty arched passages
were well built and give promise of remaining intact
through centuries yet to come. The large patio in the
center is today filled with flowers and admits light to the
many offices, once occupied by the palefaced, sad-eyed
inmates of the convent, now resounding with the click of
typewriters and the tread of feet bent on the ordinary af-
fairs of life. In 1856 this building became the deposi-
tory, or general archive, of the Spanish administration of
affairs in the Island. The first American Government
of Intervention used it as a Custom House, where Major

296 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

General Bliss had his headquarters. Shortly after the
inauguration of the Republic of Cuba this property to-
gether with that of the square now used by the Institute,
was purchased from the Church and continued to be used
as the custom house. In 1916 the old convent, thor-
oughly renovated, became the permanent headquarters
for the Department of Posts and Telegraphs, for which
it is well adapted. The custom house was transferred
to the San Francisco Wharf, a handsome structure that
also shelters the administration of Trisconia. From
1608 the San Francisco Church was used as the starting
point of the religious processions which annually passed
the "Via de Cruces" or Way of the Cross, along Amargua
Street terminating at the Church of El Cristo at the cor-
ner of Aguacate Street, which was built in 1640.

The San Agustin Convent was built by the order of
San Agustin on Amergura Street at the corner of Aguiar
Street. A tablet on the church itself states that it was
completed in the year 1659. There is nothing of special
interest connected with this church other than its antiquity
and its general air of isolated depression.

La Merced, located at the corner of Cuba and Merced
Streets, was the culmination of an effort to establish a
Merced Convent for that part of the City of Havana. It
was begun in 1746 but not completed until 1792. La
Merced is today considered the most fashionable church
in the Island of Cuba, and during times of religious festi-
vals the decorations of flowers and illumination of candles
are very imposing. This church, and the National The-
atre, during the opera season, furnish perhaps the two
most interesting places in which to study Havana's elite
society.

In 1689 the convent of Santa Catalina was built on the
square facing O'Reilly Street, between Compostela and
Aguacate Streets, the dedication of the church taking place
in 1700. This convent has been famous for two cen-
turies for its wealth, devotees vying with each other in

S^

h

W^-^

H '/lAA

IN NEW HAVANA

While many streets in Havana appear to belong to some Span-
ish city of centuries ago, many others vie with those of New York
and Washington in their up-to-date Twentieth Century aspect.
There are in both public and private edifices many examples of
the finest modern architecture and construction, some rising many
stories above the two- and three-storied buildings characteristic of
former years.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 297

the amount of money or property which they could con-
tribute to the coffers of the church. It is said that $15,-
000 was the smallest contribution that could be accepted
from any woman whose chose to devote her life and
fortune to the promotion of the Catholic faith and the
prosperity of the Church. No limit was fixed to the
amount of the individual contributions from novitiate
nuns, and many of the wealthiest women of Havana so-
ciety have disappeared from the social world, within its
walls. The property was sold in 1917 for a million dol-
lars and the inmates were removed to the new quarters
located on the plateau in Vedado.

The picturesque church that stands on the crest of the
hill in the district of Jesus del Monte was built in 1689.
The view from the front of this church, looking over the
city and bay beyond, is very pleasing.

An attractive church from the viewpoint of its minarets
and architecture, known as Santo Angel, is located on a
small hill of that name near the junction of Cuarteles
with Monserrate Street, overlooking the long stretch of
green sward that extends from the new Presidential Pal-
ace to the Park of Luz Caballero. This church, in spite
of its name, seems to have been selected by fate to suffer
a number of serious reverses. In 1828 a stroke of light-
ning toppled over the tall spire on its eastern front, and
again in 1 846 a hurricane that did but little damage to the
city tore down the cupola and brought with it the entire
end of the building. In spite of this however the church
has recently entered into a period of prosperity and is
today the center of fashionable congregations who usu-
ally assemble there for twelve o'clock late mass.

Santa Teresa was founded in 1701 and is located at
Compestela and Teniente Rey Streets.

The convent of Santa Clara was built in 1664 and be-
gan with a fund of $550. It extends from Cuba to
Havana Streets and from Sol to Luz Streets, covering
two solid blocks of ground, and is the largest convent in

298 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

the Island of Cuba. Owing to the recent increase in
the price of city property, the space covered by this con-
vent is valued at $1,500,000.

In 1704 the convent of Belen was founded at the cor-
ner of Compostela and Luz Streets, covering an entire
block of ground that had served previously as a recrea-
tion park for the Bishop of Compostela. Within this
convent the Jesuit Order established what was known as
the "Royal College of Havana," whence were graduated
some of the city's famous lawyers and scholars. This
order maintains an Observatory and weather bureau,
whence reports in regard to storms in the Caribbean are
contributed to the daily papers. Belen, among the de-
vout Catholics of Cuba, is undoubtedly one of the most
popular institutions of the West Indies.

Shortly after the inauguration of Woodrow Wilson as
President of the United States, Mr. William E. Gonzalez
was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary from that coun-
try to the Republic of Cuba, and took up his residence in
the old colonial mansion built by the Echarte family,
located on the corner of Santa Catalina and Dominguez
Streets. This beautiful quinta occupies a block of
ground in the old aristocratic residence district of Cerro,
some three miles distant from Central Park. The build-
ing, although only one story in height, is quite imposing,
built of stone with white marble floors throughout, in-
closing a beautiful patio that forms one of the unique
and charming attractions of old-time residences in Ha-
vana. A wide marble flagged gallery runs all around
this patio from which a soft subdued light enters the many
rooms facing upon it. A broad porch, whose heavy flat
roof is supported by long rows of stone columns, faces the
south, and above it flies the Stars and Stripes from sun-
rise to sunset. The garden or grounds occupying the
eastern half of the block are filled with beautiful shade
trees and sweet scented flowers that have been brought
from many parts of the world, while in front a row of

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 299

stately royal palms reach up some 80 feet or more toward
the blue sky.

La Chorrera, the Fort of Almandares, is a picturesque
little old fort, some fifty feet square and two stories in
height, built of coral rock in the year 1646, which rests
upon a little islet not much bigger than the fort itself,
at the eastern entrance of the Rio Almandares. Slave
labor undoubtedly entered into the construction of this
fort, although it is said to have cost 20,000 ducats. A
flight of stone steps has been built up to the second floor
that communicates with the entrance to the fort. Over
this is a tablet giving the date of construction and the
name of its builders.

During the siege of Havana by the British in 1762,
Lord Albemarle determined to land troops west of the
City in order to take advantage of Principe Heights, over-
looking the capital from the west. On June 10 a portion
of the British fleet began bombarding La Chorrera. Its
commanders. Captain Luis de Aguiar and Rafael de
Cardenas, made a very stubborn resistance, yielding only
when their ammunition had been completely exhausted.
This fort is easily reached by the Vedado car line, from
which a short walk of two blocks brings one to the mouth
of the Almandares, on which the fort is located.

On the western point, guarding the entrance of the
little ensenada or inlet of Cojimo, four miles east of El
Morro is Fort Cojimar, almost the duplicate of La
Chorrera, which was constructed at the same time. These
quaint monuments of the past add considerable historic
and picturesque beauty to the northern coast of Cuba.
All of them may be reached by beautiful automobile
drives and are well worth a few moments in passing.

The Torreon de la Playa, a small round watch tower,
was erected on the eastern shores of La Playa, some three
miles west of the Almandares River, where watchmen
were kept both day and night to advise the authorities and
inhabitants of the struggling young colony of the ap-

300 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

proach of pirates from the west, or any suspicious sails
that might hove in sight. This structure was built by
order of the Town Council, the "Cabilda," on order
issued on March 8, 1553, naming each individual who
was to contribute either in money or men towards the
work. The money contributed was exacted only from
some half dozen of the inhabitants and amounted to a
"real" or ten cents a day. The well-to-do inhabitants
were called on each to furnish one negro with his tools, or
lacking tools, a "batey" or boat in which to convey ma-
terial.

A similar tower known as the Torreon de San Lazaro
was built in 1556 upon the western edge of the little inlet,
which until the inauguration of the Republic in 1902
occupied the space where the beautiful equestrian statue
of General Antonio Maceo now stands.

The picturesque fort known as Atares, located on the
hill that commands the extreme southwestern end of the
bay, was begun in 1763, immediately after the departure
of the British, and completed in 1767. It is occupied
at the present time by a small detachment of Cuban ar-
tillery, and is sacred in the eyes of all Americans owing
to the fact that General Crittenden of Kentucky, and his
50 companions who had joined the unfortunate band of
Cuban liberators under the command of Narciso Lopez,
were executed on the western slope of the hill in August,
1851. Atares is easily reached by the Jesus del Monte
cars, and the view from the top of the hill is worth the
climb.

The Castillo del Principe, the last fortification of the
18th century, was placed on the western edge of the Prin-
cipe plateau, on the same spot where Lord Albemarle
with his British troops looked down on the City of Ha-
vana during the siege of 1762. Fort Principe was begun
in 1774 and completed in 1794. The general style of
architecture is similar to that of all the military structures
of this period, although Principe is larger and more com-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 301

modious than Atares. A deep moat surrounds the forti-
fication and an old style drawbridge connects the outer
edge with the entrance to the citadel itself. Since the
beginning of the Cuban Republic the fort has been used
as a state penitentiary, and is a model of ideas and meth-
ods in the treatment of its convicts. The inmates are not
only taught to read and write, but learn useful trades as
well. Those of musical bent have formed a brass band,
in which they have been encouraged under the intelligent
direction of General Demetrio Castillo, who has had
charge of the prisoners in Cuba almost since the begin-
ning of the Republic.

The view from the top of the hill is one of the most
attractive in the Province of Havana, and may be reached
either by the Principe car line, which terminates at its
base, or by an automobile drive which leads through a
winding way up the hillside to the very entrance of the
fortress.

The Botanical Gardens, Quinto de Molinos, are a beau-
tiful property fronting on Carlos Tercero Street and ex-
tending along the north side of the drive from Infanta
Street to the foot of Principe Hill. They belong to the
Government. On the corner of Infanta Street is located
the new City Hospital, the largest and most complete in-
stitute of its kind in the West Indies. Just beyond are
the ground of the Botanical Gardens and the Quinto de
Molinos, forming a long, beautiful well laid out, shaded
park. Its graveled walks lined with many varieties of
stately palms and tropical plants some indigenous and
some brought from other parts of the world, render the
ground a charming and interesting retreat, not far from
the center of the City. The estate covers some 40 acres,
and within its limits are held Agricultural and Live Stock
fairs, that under normal conditions take place annually.
These grounds, during Spanish colonial times, were used
as a summer residence by the Captains-General of Cuba,
and for that reason have a certain degree of historical

302 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

interest, since here Generals Martinez Campos, Weyler
and Blanco, with many of their predecessors, passed much
of their time during the summer season.

Several picturesque kiosks and artistic structures with
seats have been built for the benefit of the public, and
usually during the winter season open air concerts are
given within the grounds once or twice a week by the
Municipal Band. The Quinto is easily reached either
by street car or automobile and there is probably no
place within the city limits where one can pass a more rest-
ful and profitable hour, than within the shade of the
Botanical Gardens of Havana.

CHAPTER XXIX
HAVANA

Havana is one of the most charming capitals in the
New World. Its very name, Indian in its origin, con-
jures up a vivid panorama of four centuries, crowded
with tragedy, pathos, adventure, bold deeds, cruel crimes
and noble sacrifices; on whose rapidly moving film the
hand of fate has pictured every phase of human emotion
from the wild dreams of world conquerors, to the hope-
less despair of hunted Cubenos, who preferred death to
slavery. It was on the 25th day of July, 1515, that
Diego Velasquez, while cruising along the south coast of
the Island, stopped on the sandy beach near a native
fishing village called Metabano, The Indians belonged
to a tribe known as the Habanas ; one of the thirty differ-
ent divisions of the Cubenos. Grass-covered plains ex-
tending back from the beach seemed to impress Velasquez
favorably, so he founded a city there and called it San
Cristobal de la Habana.

Toward the close of the year 1519, however, the colon-
ists evidently disapproved of Velasquez's selection and
moved their to^n across to the north coast of the Island
at the mouth of the Almandares, where northeasterly
winds made the summers more agreeable. This little
stream, emptying into the Gulf of Mexico, had a depth
of twelve or fifteen feet at the mouth, sufficient for the
caravels of those days. But some of the City Fathers,
in their wanderings to the eastward, found the beautiful
bay, then knowTi as Carena. A prophetic glimpse into
the future may have furnished the motive for another
change; at any rate a year later they picked up their
household fixtures, carrying with them the town records,

and established the City where it now stands, on the

303

304 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

eastern shores of one of the finest land locked harbors in
the world. In 1556 Havana became the capital of Cuba,
the rendezvous of all Spanish fleets in the Occident, as
well as the key to the Gulf of Mexico.

Havana in the early days of the 1 6th century consisted
of several groups or clusters of palm thatched huts, not
far from the bay, with little that could suggest a city in
embryo. As in all cities built by the Spaniards in the
New World, the first permanent buildings were churches
and monasteries erected for the benefit of the Catholic
clergy and built, as a rule, of adobe or mamposteria, with
walls two or three feet in thickness. The material used
was a mixture of rock, earth and sand, inclosed in facings
of plaster. Many of them were decorated with crude
figures and images of saints popular in the community.

Later, quarries of soft limestone were found in abun-
dance, and from these, blocks were easily cut which, after
exposure to the atmosphere, formed a hard, durable build-
ing material. The coral rock of which both Morro and
Cabanas were built was taken from old quarries scattered
along the north shore from Morro eastward. From these
quarries came also the stone that built the spacious San
Francisco Convent, occupied today by the Central post
office.

As in all Spanish towns, in the New World at least, a
plaza or open square formed the center from which the
principal streets radiated. On the eastern side of the
plaza of Havana, in front of La Fuerza, was erected in
after years El Templete, in honor of the first mass held
by the inhabitants of Havana, which took place under a
giant ceiba growing close to the shore of the harbor,
in 1519.

Nearly all of the permanent structures in Havana, up
to the middle of the 17 th century, were located on or near
the water front, some distance in from La Punta. Many
of these, including La Fuerza, the San Francisco convent,
the old cathedral and La Maestranza, were built of coral
limestone cemented with a mixture the formula for which

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 305

is said to have been lost, but which in these buildings has
endured the wear of centuries. Excellent clay for mak-
ing tile and brick was later found not far south of the
City, so that the more pretentious buildings were covered
with roofs of the criolla tiles that are still common
throughout all Latin America.

Before the middle of the 15th century, the clearing in
which Havana was located was extended out as far as the
street now known as Monserrate, running from the Gulf
front across to the southwestern extension of the bay.
In 1663 a splendid wall was begun along this line and
completed with the help of slaves in 1740. It ran almost
north and south, inclosing the city on the west, and pro-
tected it from all attacks coming from the land side.
This wall was twenty feet in height and twelve feet thick
at the base, surmounted at frequent intervals by quaint
round-topped turrets. It had its angles, bastions and
points of vantage for defensive purposes, the work, ac-
cording to experts, representing a very high degree of
engineering ability on the part of those who planned it.

With the exception of one angle and its turret, which
stands in front of the new Presidential Palace, the old
walls were removed in 1902, thus depriving Havana of
perhaps the most picturesque feature of the ancient city.

Just in front of this wall on the west, a wide clearing
was made to prevent surprise attacks from the forests be-
yond. With the felling of the trees, grass soon grew
along its entire length, hence the name Prado, which
means meadow, became permanently attached to it, and
so the green lawn in front of the old walls of the 17th
century was transformed two hundred years later into
Havana's most aristocratic avenue.

The principal thoroughfare, leading from the southern
side of the Plaza de Armas to the Prado, was called
Obispo or Bishop Street, which name it still retains. It
is said that the first Bishop of Havana was in the habit of
taking his daily walk out along this road to the main gate
of the City; hence the name.

306 THE HISTORY QF CUBA

Beginning at the water front and running from La
Fuerza west, parallel to Obispo, is O'Reilly Street, named
in honor of one of Cuba's most energetic Governors-Gen-
eral, who controlled the affairs of Havana in 1763, and
who was, as the name suggests, of Irish antecedents.
Just north of O'Reilly and parallel to it w^e have Emped-
rado Street which won its distinction by being paved
from the old Cathedral to San Juan de Dios Park in the
time of Governor General Las Casas. South of Obispo
came Obrapia Street, or the Lane of Pious Works. Be-
yond and parallel to it came Lamparilla Street, which
earned this cognomen owing to the fact that some prog-
ressive citizen in the early days hung a lantern in front of
his residence for the benefit of the public at large.

Next comes Amargua Street, or the Bitter Way. It is
along Amargura that certain pious and penitent monks
were said to practice flagellation. With shoulders bent,
and on their knees, they invited the blows of whips
while wending their way out towards the edge of the city.
Incidentally they collected alms en route. On the south-
east corner of Amargura and Mercaderes Streets a pe-
culiar cross in stucco, painted green, is built into the wall
of the house where, centuries ago, lived a high dignitary
of the church, before which all passing religious proces-
sions paused for special prayers.

There is hardly a square within the old walled city that
has not some story or legend whose origin goes back to
the days of Velasquez, De Soto, Cortez of Mexico, and
other celebrated conquerors of the New World.

The Havana of today is a strange mingling of modern,
reinforced cement and stone structures, five or six stories
high, with little one or two-story, thick-walled, tile roofed
samples of architecture that prevailed three hundred
years or more ago. City property, however, is increasing
so rapidly in value that many old landmarks along the
narrow streets of the wall inclosed section are being torn
down and replaced with large, well equipped office
buildings.

COLON PARK

Colon Park, one of the most beautiful pleasure grounds of the
Cuban capital, is also known as the Campo de Marte, and is at
the southern end of the famous Prado. It is noted for its marvel-
lous avenues of royal palms. From it the Calle de la Reina, once
one of the most fashionable streets of the city but now given up to
business, runs westward toward the Botanical Gardens.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 307

With the accumulation of sugar estates, coffee planta-
tions, cattle ranches and resultant wealth, people of means
began to seek summer homes beyond the walls of the old
City. All men in those days went heavily armed for any
danger that might threaten, while numerous slaves fur-
nished protection from common thieves and highwaymen.

With the development of the outlying districts, trails
and roads soon began to reach out both to the west and
south, followed some years later by what were kno\\Ti as
Caminos Reales or Royal Roads, connecting Havana
with Matanzas, Santa Clara, Cienfuegos, Trinidad,
Sancti Spiritus, Remedios, Camaguey and Santiago de
Cuba.

One road, known still as El Cerro, ran southwest along
the crest of a ridge that led towards the western part of
the Island and in after years connected Havana with the
big coffee plantations in the mountains and foothills of
Pinar del Rio. Along this road were built the first subur-
ban residences and country homes of the aristocracy of
Havana.

Many of these places were cut out of dense woods, and
on one of them, until less than ten years ago, the original
owner, the Conde de Femandina, retained a full square
of dense primeval forest, not a tree of which had been
removed since the days of Columbus. This remnant of
virgin wilderness, located on the corner of El Cerro and
Consejero Arango Streets, was for some six years passed
by the electric car line of El Cerro.

All of this section of the City, of course, was long ago
built up with handsome residences that sheltered most
of the old Cuban families, who had inherited the right
to titles, coats of arms, and other paraphernalia pertain-
ing to the monarchy of Spain. Tulipan Park marks the
center of this aristocratic district, and still retains much
of its old-time atmosphere of colonial prestige.

Further south ran another winding trail that gradually
ascended a range of hills, forming the divide from which
the undulating surface slopes towards the south coast,

I

308 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

thirty miles away, where Velasquez located the original
site of Havana. This thoroughfare is known as Jesus
del Monte, or Jesus of the Mountain, and has become
quite popular in recent years on account of reputed
healthfulness due to its elevation above the sea.

When the last remnants of the Spanish army returned
to Spain in 1899, that portion of the City called El
Vedado, or The Forbidden, extending from the Benefi-
cencia, or Orphan Asylum, out to the Almandares River,
three miles distant, was nothing but a goat pasture, with
a low sea front of sharp coral rocks. Its soil was thin
and the district apparently had nothing to recommend
it aside from its view of the ocean.

A little dummy engine pulled a shaky, shabby car out
to the Almandares, making four trips a day. Just why
it ran at all was a mystery to the inhabitants, since there
was but little inducement to travel in that direction. The
entire expanse of land from the Santa Clara Battery to
the Almandares, and miles beyond, could have been pur-
chased for a song, but no one wanted it.

Two years later some "fool American" erected an at-
tractive bungalow on the line, about half way to the
Almandares, and not long after, sign boards could be
seen with the notice, "Lots for sale," which invariably
occasioned smiles, since there were no purchasers. But
around the bungalow were laid out pretty grounds, and
the suggestion took root. Two men of means erected
beautiful places close by, and the building of homes in
the cactus-covered jflats became a fad.

The price of lots, which began at ten cents a square
meter, soon rose to a dollar, then two dollars, five, ten,
twenty-five, and today this entire section from Havana
to the Almandares and beyond, from the dog teeth coral
of the coast, up over the crest of the Principe Hill, is
covered with beautiful modern mansions with splendid
grounds, and forms the residential pride and show ground
of the city.

This marvelous increase in development of suburban

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 309

property, which seems to continue with leaps and bounds,
has long since passed the Almandares River and reached
out to the Playa and to the Country Club, while even
further west land is sold by the square meter and not by
the caballeria. All has taken place since Leonard Wood
stepped into the Palace as Governor-General of Cuba in
the year 1900.

Another well-known highway that played an important
part in the early history of Havana was called La Reina.
This wide, beautiful avenue begins at the Parque Colon
and runs due west until at the crest of the first ridge
the name changes to Carlos Tercero, passing between
avenues of laurels until it reaches the Quinto de los
Molinos and the Botanical Gardens. Passing on around
the southern edge of the Principe Plateau, the avenue
continues on to Colon Cemetery, a beautiful spot, com-
manding a view of the mouth of the Almandares, and that
portion of Vedado lying between it and the Gulf. Since
Havana has but one cemetery for a city of over 360,000
inhabitants, travel to the last resting place is somewhat
constant over this really beautiful road.

The view from the western terminus of Principe Hill
is one of the finest in Cuba's capital. It was this crest
that the English Colonel Howe, after landing his force of
three thousand men in 1762 at the mouth of the Alman-
dares River, ascended and from it saw for the first time
the old walled city lying at his feet, in all its primitive
glory.

This commanding position on the western edge of the
Principe Plateau, with the City of Havana, the Botanical
Gardens and the beautiful Quinto de los Molinos lying
at its base, was chosen for the site of the University of
Havana, and no more appropriate place for an institu-
tion of this kind could have been selected. In the near
future it will undoubtedly become one of the most im-
portant seats of learning in Latin America.

Near the head of the western extension of Havana
Harbor is the Loma of Atares, on whose summit rests a

310 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

picturesque 1 8th century fortress of the same name. The
hill rises abruptly several hundred feet above the level
plain, and commands all approaches to the City both from
the south and the west.

The prado or meadow, that extended along the west-
em front of Havana's embattled ramparts, is today
changed into a wide esplanade, along which runs a double
driveway for automobiles and carriages. Through the
center, between double rows of laurels and flamboyans,
are shaded walks, shrubs and rare plants of the tropics.
On both sides of this fashionable street, sumptuous man-
sions, many of them homes of millionaires and distin-
guished men of this western Paris, have been built since
the inauguration of the Republic. Attempts have been
made at different times to change the name of this ave-
nue, but the people of Havana, up to the present, have
insisted on retaining the term first given it, the "Prado,"
that always lay between the City gates and the western
forests.

On the east lies the former walled city with its narrow
streets and antique buildings and picturesque landmarks
of bygone centuries. On the west we have the more
modern City, that extends for miles both south and west,
where beautiful residences have been erected, some of
them palatial in size and appointments. Several of the
more prominent hotels, too, are located on the Prado
where it forms the western boundary of "Parque Central,"
that delightful retreat in the City's center. In front of
the Park was the large gate that gave entrance and exit
to the traffic of the old time thoroughfares of Obispo and
O'Reilly. Many beautiful club buildings, whose cost
ran into millions, are located along the Prado.

At the southwestern corner of the Park is the new Na-
tional Theatre, a magnificent piece of architecture cover-
ing an entire block of ground, and costing some $3,000,-
000. This theatre is the largest and best equipped place
of amusement in Havana, and at its entertainments may
be found the elite of the Island republic. The season

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 311

of grand opera continues for approximately six weeks
every winter, during which the best artists of Italy,
France, Spain and the Metropolitan Opera of New York
furnish entertainment to a music-loving audience, whose
taste is as refined and critical as any in the w^orld.

The "Parque Central" covers an area equivalent to
two city squares, in which many beautiful shade trees,
including the evergreen laurel, the flamboyan, date and
royal palms, and other plants and flowers peculiar to the
tropics, add shade and beauty to the spot. In its center
rises an imposing statue in marble of Jose Marti.

From this central point the Prado continues south
until it terminates ih the 'Tarque de los Indios." Ad-
joining on the west is the "Parque de Colon," with an
area equivalent to four large city blocks. Stately royal
palms, india rubber trees, flowering majaguas, cocoa-
nuts and rare tropical plants, render this park one of the
most interesting in the City.

Leading away from the head of the Parque de Colon
we find a wide avenue known as La Reina, that extends
westward and upward to the summit of Belascoain,
where its width is more than doubled in the Avenue
known as Carlos Tercero. This continues west be-
tween two long rows of shade trees, outside of which
are two more drives running parallel to the main or cen-
tral avenue.

This continues out beyond the Botanical Gardens, the
Quinto de los Molinos, whence the main street curves
around the crest of the Plateau of El Principe, and con-
tinues on two miles to Colon Cemetery near the further
end of the Plateau, on the east bank of the Almandares.

Colon cemetery is one of the finest in Latin America.
The monument dedicated to the seventeen firemen who
perished beneath the falling wall of a burning house,
consists of a single shaft some fifty feet in height, sur-
mounted by the figure of an angel, supporting in her
arms an exhausted fireman. Cameos in marble of the
faces of the men who died in the performance of duty,

312 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

are cut around the base of the monument. Another
beautiful example of the sculptor's art stands above the
tomb of the "Inocentes," where lie buried the bodies of
the eight youths who were executed by the Spanish Vol-
unteers, at the foot of the Prado on November 27, 1871.
In this cemetery are buried also many of Cuba's famous
men and women whose graves are carefully kept, and
on Decoration Day are visited by thousands of people,
friends, relatives and admirers, who leave their tributes
of flowers, kind thoughts and tears.

Music in all its varied forms, from grand opera to
the rhythmic beat of the kettle drum, (which plays such
an important part in the orchestras of native negroes)
probably furnishes the chief source of pleasure and en-
tertainment in the Republic of Cuba. The Havanese
have always been a music loving people, and really ex-
cellent musicians are common in the Capital.

The Municipal Band of Havana, with some eighty
artists, under the direction of Guillermo Tomas, fur-
nishes music, either in Central Park or the Malecon,
several evenings each w^eek. It is in attendance also at
nearly all official functions, and funerals of prominent
men, soldiers, and officers of the Government.

This same band has won at different times the ad-
miration and approval of many audiences in the United
States, including that of critical Boston, where concerts
were given in Symphony Hall in 1915. It was also
heard at New York City's Tercentenary Celebration
during the fall of the same year. Director Tomas is
very proud of the medal awarded to his band by the
judges of the Buffalo Exposition in 1901.

Many other excellent bands belonging to the Navy,
and to different branches of the Army, are noted for
their music, and share with the Municipal in enter-
taining the public during different evenings of the week
at the Malecon, and at various parks scattered through-
out the City.

The Conservatory of Music located on Galiano Street

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 313

near Concordia Street has turned out many brilliant ar-
tists during its career of half a century or more. Re-
citals of music are usually held in the National Theatre
or in the Salons of the Academy of Arts and Sciences
on Cuba Street. In these halls nearly all the celebrated
artists of the world have given concerts, and hardly a
week passes without entertainments by the best local
talent.

Next to music, driving, either in automobiles or open
carriages, over the beautiful "Careteras" radiating from
the City, furnishes probably the most popular form of
diversion in Cuba. Nearly every evening throughout
the year, the view of the Malecon where the Prado and
the beautiful Gulf Shore Drive meet is a scene of ani-
mation not soon to be forgotten.

The circular Glorieta, with its dome-shaped roof,
supported on heavy stone columns, shelters some one
of the famous National bands while hundreds of peo-
ple in machines, in carriages, on stone benches and iron
seats, enjoy the music and between selections chat about
the various topics of the day. From eight until ten,
under the shadow of the grim old fortress "la Punta,"
and in the blaze of electric lights which line the Prado
and the Malecon, this diversion holds the public, in-
cluding all grades of society, from the highest officials
to the humblest clerk, or girl worker in the tobacco fac-
tories, who enjoy the benefits of a true democracy, social
and political and financial.

Some two miles west of the mouth of the Almandares,
a little inlet known as La Playa, fairly well protected
from the outer sea, furnishes the nearest bathing beach
for the citizens of Havana and visitors from abroad.
Since the temperature of the Gulf Stream which sweeps
along this part of the northern coast is practically uni-
form throughout the year, bathing may be indulged in
with pleasure both summer and winter. In the latter
season, however, owing to cool winds that sometimes
blow across the Gulf from the north, only visitors from

314 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

the United States and tourists take advantage of this
sport. The residents of Havana confine their bathing
season largely to the strictly summer months from May
until November.

The Havana Yacht Club stands just back from the
beach, and from its front extends some two hundred
feet out into the water a splendid concrete pier, shaded
by canvas awnings, and patronized by members of the
club and its guests. This club was established during
the first Government of Intervention and counts among
its members many of the best families of Havana. The
interest in yachting has grown rapidly and every year
brings with it interesting sloop yacht and motor boat
races, held either at the Playa or at Varadero, near Car-
denas.

During the bathing season the Marine Band fur-
nishes music from five until seven in the afternoons.
This is enjoyed not only by the members of the Yacht
Club, but also by crowds who throng the beach for a
mile or more on either side.

The finest beach of Cuba, however, is known as the
Varadero, located on the sea side of Punta Icaca, a nar-
row strip of land that projects into the Bay of Car-
denas. Here many of the regattas are held during the
summer months, when visitors from the capital go to
Cardenas to enjoy the twenty mile stretch of outside surf
bathing. Bathing places cut out of the coral rocks along
the beach of Vedado are also used, especially by the
citizens of that locality.

Fishing is a sport that furnishes most enjoyable en-
tertainment for those who are fond of it. Handsome
specimens of the finny tribe are frequently brought in
by men and boys, who drift in small boats along the
coast, a mile or so out, and fish both for the table and
for profit. Tourists often find amusement in going out
in motor launches at night and fishing for shark off the
mouth of the harbor. Since sharks are usually plenti-
ful, and of sufficient size to give the angler a tussle be-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 315

fore being brought up to the boat and dispatched, this
form of amusement appeals as a novelty to many who
come from the interior of the United States.

The markets of Havana are full of excellent fish that
are caught all along the Gulf Stream, between Cuba and
the coast of Florida. These are brought in sloops pro-
vided with the usual fish well, which keeps them fresh
until thrown on the wharf just before daylight. The
varieties most sought for, or prized, are the red snapper,
known in Spanish as the "Pargo," the sword fish, and
the baracuta, which are splendid fish, from two to three
feet in length and very game, when caught with hook
and line.

Of the smaller fish, the Spanish mackerel, the mullet,
the needle fish, and scores of other varieties are always
found in abundance. The pompano, peculiar to the
Gulf of Mexico, owing to its delicious flavor and its en-
tire lack of small bones is probably the most prized of
all, and commands a very high price when it reaches
the table of fashionable hotels in the United States.

The game of Jai Alai was introduced here from the
Basque Provinces of Spain, during the first Govern-
ment of Intervention in 1900, and became very popu-
lar with both Cubans and visitors from the United
States. General Leonard Wood and his aides soon ac-
quired the habit of visiting the Fronton and spending
an hour or so in practice every morning.

Jai Alai is played in a building erected for the pur-
pose with a court some two hundred feet in length, in-
closed on three sides by smooth stone walls, perhaps
forty feet in height, and having a concrete floor. It is
played with two opponents on each side known as the
blues and the whites. The ball is similar to that of
the tennis court, made in Spain with a high degree of
resiliency and costing five dollars. It is thro\\Ti from
a long narrow wicker basket, or scoop, slightly curved
at the point, to retain the ball while swung to the head
or end wall. The gloved part of the instrument is firmly

316 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

strapped to the forearm of the player. The ball is
caught in this sling-like scoop, and from its length of
some thirty inches or more is driven with great force from
the further end of the court to the opposite wall. On
the rebound it must be caught by one of the two oppo-
nents, on either fly or first bound, otherwise a point is
scored against the side that falls.

A three-inch band is painted around the end of the
court, parallel with the floor and about four feet above
it. The ball must strike the wall above this band, and
the science of the play is to drive it into the corner at
such an angle that your opponents will find it impossible
to catch it as it caroms back.

Once the game starts, the ball never stops its flight
through the air, from the wicker scoop to the end of the
wall and back, until an error is made which counts
against the side that fails to catch it. And since the
player cannot hold the ball in his wicker sling for an in-
stant, the action is decidedly rapid and the excitement
soon becomes intense.

A player may occasionally be seen to leap into the air,
catch and fire the ball back to the end of the court, he
himself falling flat on his back, leaving his partner to
take care of the return. Thirty points constitute the usual
game and about an hour is required in which to play
it. Jai Alai was suspended during the latter part of
President Estrada Palma's term, on account of the heavy
betting that accompanied it, but owing to insistent popular
demand, it was again installed at the Fronton in the
Spring of 1918.

The game of baseball, brought to Cuba in the year
1900, from the very start gained a popularity among the
natives that has never ceased for a moment. It is today
the national sport of Cuba, and quite a number of high-
priced players from Cuba have occupied prominent places
in the big league clubs of the United States. The local
clubs of Havana play a splendid game, as several crack
teams from the United States have discovered to their

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 317

surprise and cost, many of them having been sent home
badly beaten.

The king of sports, however, in Havana, is horse
racing, first introduced from the United States in 1907.
Such was its popularity that capitalists some four years
ago, were encouraged to erect in the suburb of Marianao
the finest racing pavilion in the West Indies. The mile
track and the beautiful grounds which surround it are
all that lovers of the sport could desire; while the view
from the Grand Stand, across a tropical landscape whose
hillsides are covered with royal palms, with dark green
mountains silhouetting the distant horizon, gives us one
of the most picturesque and attractive race tracks in the
world.

Between the Plaza and Camp Columbia are located the
golf links of Havana, which owing to the natural beauty
of the grounds, and the charm of the surrounding coun-
try, with its view of the ocean and distant palm covered
hills, render golfing a pleasure for at least three hun-
dred and thirty days a year. These natural advantages
have made the links of the Country Club of Havana cele-
brated in all places where golfing news reaches those who
are devoted to the game.

In the various public buildings in Havana occupied
by the Government of Cuba may be traced many styles
of architecture that have followed each other from the
beginning of the 16th century to well into the 20th.
The old Fort of La Fuerza, that dates from 1538, is now
occupied by the Secretary of War and Navy, and from
it orders are issued directing the management of the
two arms of the service, which in Cuba are combined
under one directorate. Aside from modem windows,
shutters and up-to-date office furniture, no changes have
been made in the general outline or contour of this anti-
quated old fortress, whose entrance and drawbridge face
the Templete close by on the spot where the residents of
Cuba held their early Town Councils and listened to the
singing of their first mass, four centuries ago.

318 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Next in line of antiquity would come the old San
Franciscan Convent, that in 1916 was converted into a
spacious and artistic post-office, where the Director Gen-
eral of Posts and Telegraphs looks after that important
branch of the Government Service.

Next in point of age comes the home of the Department
of Public Works in the Maestranza, along the northeast-
ern front of which runs a remnant of the old sea wall, ex-
tending along the west shore of the harbor from the
Cathedral to the head of Cuba Street. This thick walled
building, of only two stories, began as an iron and brass
foundry, in which cannon were made several centuries
ago and during later years of Spanish Colonial occu-
pancy was used as a warehouse for rifles, sabres, pistols
and small arms in general. Here were outfitted officers
and men of the Spanish Volunteers, or loyalists of the
Island, during Cuba's century of revolutions. With the
occupation of American troops in 1900, this building,
covering over a block of ground, was converted into of-
fices of the Sanitary Department and allied branches,
who vouched for the city's health and cleanliness during
that period. It was here that Major Gorgas, now Major
General, held sway and directed the campaign that ex-
terminated the stegomyia mosquito, and thus put an end
to the dreaded scourge of yellow fever in Cuba. It is at
present occupied by the various branches of Public
Works under the direction of Col. Jose R. Villalon, who
has earned the reputation of being one of the most tire-
less and persistent workers in the Government. The Na-
tional Library, whose entrance faces on Chacon Street
at present, shares the accommodations of the Maestranza.

The Department of Sanitation, with all of its vast
ramifications, whose jurisdiction covers the entire Island,
is located in an old colonial building fronting on Belas-
coain near the corner of Carlos Tercero Street, and with
its ample patio covers an entire block of ground. This
Department is located more nearly at the center of mod-
ern Havana than any of the other Government offices.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 319

One of the oldest public buildings, and the largest used
for purposes of Government, known as La Hacienda, is
located on the water front between Obrapia Street and the
Plaza de Armas. During the many years of Spanish
rule, not only the Custom House, but nearly all the more
important branches of Government, were located within
its walls. With the inauguration of the Republic, the
National Treasury was installed in the southwest corner
of the building, under the direction of Fernando Fi-
guerdo, who has retained this position of trust during all
changes of administration. The remainder of the ground
floor is occupied by the National Lottery and offices con-
nected with that Institution, which extend into the en-
tresuelo, or half-story, just above. The second floor is
occupied by the Hacienda, or Treasury Department,
whose offices surround the central patio on all four sides.
The third and fourth floors are devoted to the central
offices of the Department of Agriculture, including the
headquarters of its Secretary, General Sanchez Agra-
monte. The upper floor, or azotea, is used by the Lab-
oratory of the Department of Agriculture. The Ha-
cienda is rather an imposing building from the Bay, on
which it faces, and plays a very important part in the
Government work of the Island.

To the outside world the best knowTi building is prob-
ably the old Governor-General's palace, fronting on the
Plaza de Armas and occupying the square of ground be-
tween Tacon and Mercaderes Streets and between Obispo
and O'Reilly Streets. The palace is two stories in height
and belongs to what may be termed the modern colonial
style of Cuban architecture, with very high ceilings, enor-
mous doors and tall iron-barred windows that descend
to the floor. The interior of the Palace is occupied by a
very pretty palm court with a statue of Christopher Col-
umbus posing in the center, facing the wide deep entrance
that opens from the Plaza. This building was erected
in 1834, as a residence and headquarters for the Gov-
ernors General sent out from Spain, many of whom have

320 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

occupied the Palace between that date and the year 1899,
when the last Governor General took his departure. It
was here that General Martinez Campos, in the winter
of 1896, penned his cablegram to the Spanish sovereign,
stating that Generals Maximo Gomez and Antonio
Maceo, with their insurgent forces, had crossed the
Trocha into Pinar del Rio, for which reason he tendered
his resignation, acknowledging his failure to arrest the
tide of Cuba's War of Independence. Within this same
palace General Weyler planned his scheme of reconcen-
tration, or herding of the pacificos, non-combatants, old
men, women and children, into barbed wire stockades,
where a quarter of a million of them died of exposure,
disease and hunger. It is said that when informed of
their condition and the fearful death rate, he remarked,
"Excellent! Let these renegade mothers die. We will
replace them with women who will bear children loyal to
Spain." It was here also that his more humane and
civilized successor, General Blanco, who in the last days
of 1897 had tried hard to save Spain's one remaining
colony in America, felt the shock of the explosion that
sank the battleship Maine in Havana Harbor in Feb-
ruary, 1898, and exclaimed as he looked across the bay
toward the wreck: "This will mark the saddest day of
Spain's history." Within the same room too, Cuba's first
President, the beloved and revered Tomas Estrada
Palma, with tears of humiliation in his eyes, handed his
resignation as President to the American Secretary of
War, William H. Taft, and left for his almost forgotten
farm in the forests back of Manzanillo, where he passed
his last days as a martyr to the greed and cruelty of his
own people.

Diagonally across from the old Presidential Palace, on
the northwest corner of the Plaza de Armas, stands the
Senate Chamber, a two-story building of the same attrac-
tive architecture found in the old Palace. It is in a way
a companion to this building, having been designed and
directed as the home and office of the various Lieutenant-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 321

Generals of the Island, in which capacity it served until
the termination of Spanish rule in Cuba. During the
two years of American Intervention, various military
departments made their headquarters within this struc-
ture, but with the installation of the Republic in 1902 it
was formally dedicated to the use of the Senate, and
officers connected with that branch of the Legislative gov-
ernment. The lofty salon fronting the Plaza de Armas
served as the Senate Chamber. The 24 members of the
upper house held sessions there on Mondays, Wednes-
days and Fridays of each week. As with the Presiden-
tial Palace, the somewhat lavish use of marble in pa-
tios, floors, stairways, balconies, etc., is much in evi-
dence in this building.

Just north of the Senate Chamber, and covering the
east side of the long block on Tacon Street, between the
Palace and the Bay, are located the Bureau of Secret
Service, the Department of Government, and those of
State of Justice, all installed at the present time in the
same building.

This building during Colonial days was occupied by
the Department of Engineers, and with the beginning of
American intervention was turned over to Brigadier Gen-
eral William A. Ludlow, to whose energy is due the
credit of rapidly and effectively cleaning up the city of
Havana after its sanitary abandonment of three cen-
turies duration. General Ludlow shared the building
with General Enoch Crowder. The Palace of State and
Justice has been remodeled and renovated from founda-
tion to azotes. All of its floors and most of its walls are
now finished and decorated in a manner appropriate to
the uses to which it is dedicated.

During the regime of General Leonard Wood, through
an official decree of that most competent commander,
three public buildings were added to the capital of the
Republic, each now bearing his name in an appropriate
placque or tablet in the wall. The first of these was a
Bacteriological Laboratory, now known as the General

322 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Wood Laboratory, located on Carlos Tercero Street in
front of the Botanical Gardens. Bacteriological experi-
ments, which up to that time had been conspicuous by
their absence, have since been carried on faithfully in
Havana under the direction of the celebrated expert in
that science, Dr. Aristides Agramonte.

Next in order was a handsome three-story stone build-
ing, located on Belascoain a block from the corner of
Carlos Tercero Street, dedicated to the school of Indus-
trial Arts and Sciences. The instruction given in this
Institution since its foundation in 1901, has been effi-
cient, and of excellent service to the youth of Havana,
many of whom have taken very kindly to this much
needed innovation.

The third of these institutions fathered by General
Wood is the Academy of Sciences and Fine Arts, located
on Cuba Street near Amargura Street. This institution
has been a boon and a blessing to the intellectual life of
Havana, since for the first time suitable quarters were
offered to celebrated lecturers, artists and musicians, who
find in Havana appreciative audiences, and where, since
the founding of the Academy, local talent had a fitting
theatre in which to display its merit.

Since the beginning of the Republic in 1902, under
President Estrada Palma, the old Governor General's
Palace was found rather limited in its accommodations.
Not only was it compelled to shelter the President and his
family, together with the many offices belonging to the
Executive Department, but it also shared its accommoda-
tions with the City Council, and many of the depend-
encies of that Institution. With the rapid growth of the
City, and the unavoidable increase in the work of all
departments, consequent on the development of com-
merce and trade with the outside world, these quarters,
each year, have been found increasingly cramped and
unsatisfactory.

During the regime of President Jose Miguel Gomez, a
new Presidential palace was planned, and work was be-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 323

gun on it on the site formerly occupied by the Villa
Nueva Station, belonging to the United Railways of
Havana. This ample space, facing for several blocks on
the Prado and Colon Park, was exchanged, by an Act of
Congress, for the old Arsenal Grounds on the water
front, desired by the railways for a Grand Central Sta-
tion, for which they were excellently adapted. The plans
of this structure, as well as the beginning of the work,
were found to be most unsuited to a Presidential Pal-
ace, and by order of President Menocal, at the sugges-
tion of the Secretary of Public Works, work was discon-
tinued and abandoned for other plans and better con-
struction.

Previous to the inauguration of President Menocal
funds were voted for the erection of a Provincial Palace
or State House, on the property belonging to the Govern-
ment located between Monserrate and Zuleuta Streets,
just at the head of the long, beautiful stretch of open
land that sweeps dovra to the sea from the crest of the
low hill, where rests the last remnant of the city walls.
This location, with its view of the Luz Caballero Park, of
the entrance of the Bay of Havana and the Morro Head-
land on the opposite side, is one of the finest in the City,
and naturally appealed to the artistic taste of General
Menocal as the true location for a Presidential Palace.
The Provincial Building had been planned on a scale
altogether unsuited for the offices of a Provincial Coun-
cil, whose members were limited to less than ten, and
whose services were of so little utility that several pro-
posals for their discontinuance had been considered.
More than all, funds for the completion of the building
had been more than exhausted, and large debts to con-
tractors were pending. To relieve this emergency and
liquidate the indebtedness, it was finally resolved by the
National Congress to take over the property, • reimburs-
ing the Provincial Government with the $540,000 which
they had expended, and to dedicate this building to the
purpose of a Presidential Palace that would be more ap-

324 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

propriate to the demands of the Executive Department in
a rapidly growing Republic.

A million dollars was appropriated for this purpose,
which sum has since been augmented in order to carry
out the interior decoration of the building along lines
that would be in keeping with its proposed use. The
new Presidential Palace is four stories in height built of
white stone, the architecture being a harmonious com-
bination of the Medieval and Renaissance, terminating
with a magnificent dome that rises from the center of
the building. The interior decoration of the new Pal-
ace has had the benefit of skilled experts, and everything
is in harmony with the purpose to which the building was
dedicated. The great Salon de Honor is in the style
of Louis XVI, while the State Dining Room is modeled
after the Italian Renaissance. The main entrance, prin-
cipal staircase, the hall and the general dining-room are
of Spanish Renaissance. The Salon de Damas is dec-
orated in modern French style. All of the other rooms
that pertain to the personal equipment of the Palace, and
comprise the east wing, follow the same general line of
architecture and decorations, varying only in design and
colors. The Palace is beyond doubt, in location, design
and decoration, one of the most beautiful and interesting
structures of its kind in the western hemisphere.

Work on the new capitol building, which is to replace
the architectural mistake of its original founders, was
begun in 1918, with the purpose of making this building
the most imposing and stately modern structures of its
kind in the West Indies. It will be four stories in height
and cover 5,940 square meters of ground, with a floor
space of 38,195 square meters. Above this spacious
structure will rise a splendid dome in keeping with the
architecture of the main building. One half of the
building will be devoted to the use of the House of Rep-
resentatives, while the other will be occupied by the Sen-
ate. It will contain offices and apartments for the Vice
President, Committee halls, etc., and will be furnished

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 325

with all of the conveniences and improvements of mod-
em times. The Hall of Representatives will accommo-
date 133 members, and may be increased up to 218. The
Senate Chamber has ample capacity for the 24 senators,
with accommodations in each of these Congressional
halls for visitors and the general public Elevators will
reach all floors and the interior decorations will be in
keeping with the purpose to which the new Capitol
Building is devoted.

During the Presidency of General Mario Menocal,
work was begun on the National Hospital, which when
completed, will be one of the finest institutions of its kind
in the world. The grounds are located on the northwest
corner of Carlos Tecero and Belascoain Streets, occupy-
ing the eastern extension of the Botanical Gardens that
adjoin the hospital grounds on the west. The location,
near the center of what may be termed modern Havana,
is excellent, and the work as planned will constitute a
very important adjunct to the maintenance of health in
Havana.

The plans contemplate the erection of 32 modern
buildings, constructed of white limestone and reinforced
concrete. Sixteen, or one-half of these had been finished
in the fall of 1918. This hospital when complete will
cost approximately a million and a half of dollars, and
will rank with those of the best of America and Europe.
The institution has been named in memory of General
Calixto Garcia.

CHAPTER XXX
A PAK^ADISE OF PALM DRIVES

To those who are fond of motoring in the tropics, the
world offers no more delightful field than the Island of
Cuba from the end of October until early May, with
Havana as a point of departure. Some fourteen hun-
dred kilometers or 850 miles of clean, cream colored ma-
cadamized drives stretch out to the east, south and west
of Havana, each inviting the tourist or lover of nature
to feast his eyes on a fascinating panorama of mountain,
hill and dale; of canon, cliff and undulating plain.

Long lines of stately royal palms, of white-trunked
Cuban laurel, from whose branches the glossy green
leaves never fall, of cocoas, mangoes, almonds, tama-
rinds, and a score of others, border mile after mile of the
national highways, furnishing grateful shade and soft-
ened light that otherwise would try the eyes. Every
turn and curve of the driveway brings change. There
is no sameness of landscape, no monotony of level. Each
mile, each moment, presents something new. Expecta-
tion is seldom disappointed.

Nothing perhaps is more startlingly novel or strikingly
beautiful than when, in early summer, the touring car,
rounding a curve, suddenly brings to view a line of flam-
boyans in full bloom. Lips open in surprise, eyes fasten
on what seems a forest of fire. The great banks of bril-
liant red and golden yellow waving in the breeze need
only smoke to proclaim the roadside all ablaze. The
camouflage of Nature is perfect and strangers of the
tropics will bid the chauffeur pause until they can feast
their eyes on this riot of color.

The most interesting excursions through Cuba radiate

from the Capital. One of exceptional charm stretches

326

JO 37Z37/

nij loii

ni xiv/oric a

.11

AN AVENUE OF PALMS

The splendid highways which under the Republic have been
created in all parts of Cuba have not been left as mere roadways,
but have been provided with hundreds of thousands of shade trees,
for the comfort of travellers as well as for the scenic beauty which
they enhance. There are hundreds of miles of driveways shaded
and adorned with stately palms or other trees, like that shown in
the illustration.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 327

east through Matanzas to Cardenas, a comparatively
modern, well built little city of some thirty thousand
souls, resting on the southern shore of Cardenas Bay,
just a hundred miles from Havana.

One of the old colonial, solidly-built military roads
leaving Havana was constructed along a comparatively
straight line for 48 kilometers to the little city of Guines,
located in the southeastern center of the province of Ha-
vana. The road, bridges, and culverts are built solidly
of stone, while giant laurels, almonds and flamboyans on
both sides of the way furnish a continuous stretch of
shade beneath which the voyager travels from one end of
the road to the other. This drive is over a rolling, and
in places a decidedly hilly country, which relieves monot-
ony and at the same time adds greatly to the picturesque-
ness of the highway. Many little villages such as San
Francisco, Cotorro, Cautro Caminos, Jamaica, San Jose,
Ganuza and Loma de Candela or "Hill of the Candle,"
are passed between Havana and Guines. These, to the
stranger are always a source of novelty and interest.
From the top of the Loma de Candela, a beautiful view
of the valley below spreads out towards the south. This
is known as the Valley of Guines, a large part of which
has the good fortune to have been brought under a rather
crude but nevertheless efficient system of irrigation many
years ago. The water for this irrigation comes from a
large spring that, like many others in the Island, bursts
from some big cavern below the surface and forms a river
that eventually reaches the sea a little east of the village
of Batabano, on the south coast. Some three miles from
Guines the river is brought under control by a rather
crude dam of cement through which it is distributed by
ditches over the lands, referred to usually as the "Veg-
etable Garden of the Province of Havana." Here large
quantities of tomatoes, egg plants, peppers, squash and
Irish potatoes are grown during the late fall and winter
months. The produce of this section is shipped to the
United States as long as market prices justify, after

328 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

which ready sale is found in the local markets of the
capital.

From Guines another drive extends some 13 kilo-
meters towards the northeast to the town of La Catalina
on the way to Matanzas. The distance from Havana
to Matanzas is shortened by a connecting link 16 kilo-
meters in length which branches off the Guines highway
at Ganuza, and runs due east through La Catalina to
the town of Madruga, 63 kilometers from Havana.
This section of the road follows a ridge of low hills or
mountains. From Madruga the drive turns sharply to
the northeast, entering the Province of Matanzas, 25
kilometers east of the border line.

The drive from Havana to Matanzas is 100 kilometers
or 60 miles in length, and passes through a section of
country every mile of which brings to view charming bits
of tropical scenery, together with an opportunity to see
something of the life of the inhabitants in the interior
of the Island. If one has time to stop, or cares to leave
the main highway at Ceiba and cross the ridge of hills
about a mile distant, a beautiful little valley lies below,
on the other side of the divide. The drive from Havana
to Matanzas is usually made in about three hours, and,
aside from the attractions furnished by the city and its
suburbs spread out along the western side of the harbor,
will furnish a very pleasant diversion for an early morn-
ing or late afternoon excursion.

Another of the old Spanish colonial military roads,
leaving Havana through the suburb of Marianao, sweeps
away towards the southwest in a comparatively straight
line until it reaches the city of Guanajay, 42 kilometers
distant. Here the road divides, one branch running due
south to the little city of Artemisa, located in the center
of the pineapple district, which furnishes a large part
of the fruit shipped to the United States. From Ha-
vana to Artemisa, 58 kilometers, Cuban laurels, royal
palms and flamboyans furnish a continuous and often
dense shade throughout its entire length. In some places,

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 329

for miles, the road resembles a long green tunnel pass-
ing through foliage that arches up from the sides and
meets in the center above. From Las Mangas, 7 kilo-
meters south of Artemisa, the road swings sharply to the
westward and so continues through a more open coun-
try with less shade and less traffic. There is no speed
limit on the country roads of Cuba, and if the condi-
tion of the drive permits, one can skip along at a 40 or
50 mile clip between villages, with little danger of in-
terference. This westerly drive swings on through Can-
delaria, 82 kilometers from Havana, where one gets the
first glimpse of the long picturesque range of the Organ
Mountains some five miles away to the north. These
parallel the road to the western terminus of the Island.

From the village of Candelaria a short drive not over
five miles in length reaches up to the base of the Ruby
hills, which at this point form a perpendicular cliff sev-
eral hundred feet in height, over which falls a stream
of water whose volume during the winter is compara-
tively small, but the drop is perpendicular and the roar
of the torrent during the rainy season can be easily heard
at Candelaria. Just above the falls are a group of min-
eral springs, iron, sulphur, etc., that were once very pop-
ular, and during slavery days, which terminated in
1878, many families passed the warm months at these
baths, the ruins of which can still be seen. About four
kilometers of this road to the falls is macadamized and
the remainder can be negotiated readily by an ordinary
carriage. A connecting link some 20 kilometers in
length has been proposed to connect Candelaria with
San Diego de Nunez and Bahia Honda on the north
coast, but the cost of the road through the mountains may
prevent its completion for some time.

San Cristobal, 10 kilometers further west, and 92 kilo-
meters from Habana, was the terminus of one of the old
military roads at the beginning of the Cuban Republic.
Since this time a beautiful automobile drive has been con-
tinued out to Guane, 246 kilometers from Havana, and

330 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

will soon reach La Fe and Los Arroyos, two points on
the extreme western coast about 30 kilometers further
on.

Nine kilometers west of San Cristobal a connecting
link with the main highway has been built to the town
of Taco-Taco, about a mile and a quarter distant on
the railroad, with another branch 7 kilometers in length
running due north to the foot of the mountains. This
road will be built straight across the Organ Range,
through Rangel and Aguacate, to Bahia Honda on the
north coast, passing the old time "cafetales" or coffee
plantation-s of Pinar del Rio, and also through some of
the rich mineral zones of that region. The uncompleted
link is only about 20 kilometers but is over a rather dif-
ficult mountainous country.

At the 117th kilometer post a highway of six kilo-
meters connects with the town of Palacios on the Western
Railway, while at the 123rd, still another branches south
to Paso Real with a northern extension that reaches San
Diego de los Banos, 9 kilometers distant. This road
too, will eventually cross the mountain range and con-
nect with Consolacion del Norte, whence the road has
already been completed to Rio Blanco on the north coast,
9 kilometers away.

The drive from the main line to San Diego de los
Banos is through an extremely picturesque country of
hill and dale, and the village itself is well worthy of a
visit. Like the Candelaria Springs, the San Diego Baths
have long been famous, and the latter still continue to be
so. The springs of hot and cold water impregnated with
sulphur, iron and other minerals are said to have valuable
medicinal qualities.

From the cross roads at the 123rd kilometer the main
trunk-line passes through a series of low hills, but with
grades so reduced that motors have no difficulty in ne-
gotiating them. From the town of Consolacion, 151
kilometers from Havana, one enters the eastern border
of the celebrated Vuelta Abaja tobacco district that lies

I

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 331

spread out on either side of the driveway. On either
side are low hills with gentle slopes and little oases or
"vegas" of land that are not only rich, but contain that
mysteriously potent quality which from time immemorial
has produced the finest tobacco in the world.

Pinar del Rio, the capital of the province, is located at
the 172nd kilometer and forms a center from which
five different automobile drives radiate. The w^estern
line, which may be considered as an extension of the
main highway, will eventually connect San Antonio, the
western terminus of the Island, with Cape Maisi in the
east, 800 miles away. This road to the northwest soon
enters the mountains, through which it passes many rises,
falls and unexpected turns, bringing into view a pic-
turesque country, rugged but not forbidding. At kilo-
meter 200, a point known as Cabezas or "the Head," the
drive turns at a right angle and sweeps down towards
the plain below, terminating at Guane, 246 kilometers
from Havana, on the western edge of the celebrated
Vuelta Abajo. A shorter line between Pinar del Rio
and Guanes, passing through San Juan y Martinez, is
under process of construction. The latter city is located
in the western center of the Vuelta Abajo district.

From this city, a modem little place of some 12,000
or 15,000 inhabitants, another branch of the trunk line,
25 kilometers in length, passes through a level country
until it reaches La Paloma, a landing place for coasting
vessels and light draft steamers of the Caribbean Sea.

From the capital of the Province due north a line 52
kilometers in length has been built straight across to La
Esperanza on the north coast, a little fishing village lo-
cated on the bay formed by the outlying islands some
six miles from the mainland. The road ascends by com-
paratively easy grades to a height of some 1800 feet,
where the top of the ascent is reached. Here the line
takes a sharp curve to the east, bringing suddenly into
view, as Rex Beach exclaimed: "The most pictur-
esquely, dramatically beautiful valley in the world!"

332 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

This strangely hidden mountain recess or park is known
as the Valley of Vinales, and forms part of a strange
basin, that has been carved out of the heart of the Organ
range by erosion, leaving a quiet grass covered, flat bot-
tomed basin 2,000 feet below the top of the ridge from
whose level surface strange, round topped limestone hills
are lifted perpendicularly to an altitude of 2000 feet. A
small stream courses through the rich grass that carpets
the floor, and one lone picturesque little village, with
houses of stone and roofs of tile, nestles in its center.
The inhabitants of the place seem absolutely content
with its quiet charm and seldom see anything of the out-
side world, except as represented by the occasional tour-
ist, who sweeps through with his car, stopping for a mo-
ment perhaps for some simple refreshment, and then on,
through the narrow gap between the towering "magotes"
that form the northern wall of the valley. Here the road
suddenly swings to the west, following the foot of the
mountain which towers above for a few kilometers,
whence it again turns north, and passes out into the com-
paratively barren pine covered hills that continue on
through San Cayetano until the gulf coast is reached at
La Esperanza.

In returning after a rather primitive fish breakfast
which can be had at La Esperanza, it is worth one's while
to pause for a moment in front of the little country
school, on the west side of the road, just before the Val-
ley is entered from the north, and there to secure a child
guide, whom the courteous professor will indicate, and
with the services of this little pilot you may find the re-
appearing river, a stream that slips under the base of the
mountain within the valley, and reappears from a pic-
turesque, cave-like opening on the other side. The
stream is only a few yards in width, with the water clear
as crystal and very pleasant to drink.

Standing on the rocks in the shade of the cliffs above,
one can hear the roar of the water some place back in
the depths of the range, where it evidently falls to a

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 333

lower level. A visit to this spot gives one an oppor-
tunity to note and observe at close hand the peculiar
formations of the rocks, full of pockets and openings,
from every one of which protrudes some strange growth
of tropical vegetation. To explore the Valley of Vinales
and its various turns, narrowing up between steep walls
in some places, opening out into beautiful parks at oth-
ers, would require a week at least, but would afford a
rare diversion never to be regretted.

The little city of Guanajay, at which the long western
automobile drive divides, is located on an elevated pla-
teau, some thousand feet above the level of the sea.
From the little central plaza of the town a beautiful road
leaves in a northerly direction, passing through cane
fields and grazing lands for some five or six kilometers,
until it reaches the crest from which the road descends to
the harbor of Mariel. It is worth while to pause at this
point and note the beautiful panorama of hills on all
sides and the tall peaks of the Organ range of Pinar del
Rio to the westward. From this point down, for two
kilometers, the descent is rather steep, winding, and pic-
turesque.

Thirteen kilometers from Guanajay the little fishing
village of Mariel is found at the head of one of the deep
protected harbors of the north coast. The view from
the head of the bay is very interesting, with high flat
promontories on the east, perched on the crest of one of
which is the Naval Academy of the Republic, the An-
napolis of Cuba. A little further on may be seen a large
cement plant erected in 1917, beyond which, on the
point, is the quaint old light-house that has done duty
for many years. The western shore line is broken into
tongue-like projections, with deep recesses between, all
covered with fields of waving sugar cane.

On the extreme western point, at the entrance of the
harbor, is located the Quarantine Station where passen-
gers and crews from foreign vessels in which some infec-
tious disease has appeared are cared for in cleanly com-

334 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

modious quarters until the sanitary restriction is re-
moved. The National Quarantine Station has been
chosen by President Menocal as a favorite anchorage for
his private yacht during the warm months of summer.
Fishing in this bay, too, attracts many tourists.

Near kilometer 10, on the Mariel Drive, the road di-
vides, the western branch sweeping away at right angles
through rich cane fields as far as the eye can see and
gradually ascending towards the little village of Quiebra
Hacha, near which are several magnificent sugar estates
whose mills grind day and night through six or eight
months every year. At the 18th kilometer, the road turns
due west and follows the crest of a range of low hills
which sweep along the southern shore of the harbor of
Cabanas.

The view of this bay from the drive is one of the
finest in Cuba. Every turn of the road shows some part
of the bright blue waters, dotted with palm crested islets
a thousand feet below. The entrance of the harbor, with
a small island just inside the mouth, its quaint old 17th
century fortress recalling the days of the pirates and
buccaneers of the Spanish Main, can be seen in the dis-
tance.

For eight or ten miles the drive follows the general
trend of the shoreline, leaving it finally with a graceful
turn and many changes of level, as hill after hill is
either climbed or circled. The driveway sweeps on west-
ward through a country devoted to cane growing and
stock raising, until another beautiful deep water harbor
known as Bahia Honda is sighted off to the northwest.
Eventually the drive passes through and terminates
abruptly about a kilometer and a half beyond the little
village of Bahia Honda or Deep Bay, that was built over
two kilometers back from the head of the harbor over a
century ago, when the inhabitants still feared the incur-
sion of enemies from the sea. The town lies just at the
foot of forest covered hills that come gradually down
from the Organ Range some six miles back. The town

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 335

itself, aside from a certain quaintness, common to all in-
terior cities of Cuba, has but little interest. A short
driveway leads to the head of the bay and the inshore
lighthouse.

The harbor is some five or six miles in length by three
or four in width, and furnishes splendid anchorage even
for deep draft vessels. This bay was originally chosen
as the north shore coaling station for the United States
Government in Cuba, but afterwards was abandoned as
unnecessary. Two range lights render entrance at night
easy, while just west of the mouth on the long line of
barrier reefs known as the Colorados, stands the new
Gobemadora lighthouse, erected a few years ago for the
benefit of ships plying between Havana and Mexico.

The drive from Havana to Bahia Honda, with the lit-
tle digression towards Mariel, is sixty miles in length.
The rather heavy grades in places, and the beauty of
the scenery throughout its entire length, discourage fast
motoring, but the jaunt can easily be made between "de-
sayuno" at seven and the Cuban "almuerzo" or breakfast
at eleven. No trip of equal length in the Republic fur-
nishes greater charm to the lover of picturesque Nature
than does this north shore drive to Bahia Honda. When
connected as planned, with Vinales, some 50 kilometers
further west, it will rank with, if not excel, any other
drive known in the tropical world.

From Matanzas several short lines radiate, all of
which are interesting, especially those which wander
through the valley of the Yumuri, and another seven
kilometers in length which follows the shore line and
sweeps up over the ridge, affording a beautiful view of
the Yumuri, stretching out to the westward. Another
short line, only a few kilometers in length, has been built
to the caves of Bellamar, a favorite resort for winter
tourists.

Another drive reaching south to La Cidra, 16 miles
distant, on the railroad to Sabanilla, enables one to form
some conception of the country to the southward of the

336 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

capital. Only a few kilometers from Matanzas one of
the main trunk lines has been completed as far east as
Contreras, 60 kilometers. From this line, just beyond
Ponce, a branch runs 8^ kilometers to the charming
little city of Cardenas, resting on the southern edge of the
bay.

Extending from Cardenas due west is another line,
terminating at the little town of Camarioca, 18 kilome-
ters distant. Some five kilometers along this road a
branch sweeps north 10 kilometers to the Playa of Vara-
dero, the finest beach in the Island of Cuba, where many
of the wealthier families assemble for the summer to
enjoy surf bathing on the outer shore, and where the
annual regatta is held during the season.

From Contreras the northern trunk line has been pro-
jected eastward, through Corralillo, across the border into
the Province of Santa Clara. Short stretches of this
line have been completed from the towns of Marti and
Itabo, but up to January 1, 1919, no trunk line ex-
tended further west than Cardenas.

Cienfuegos, one of the principal seaports of the south
coast of Santa Clara, is the center from which two auto-
mobile drives radiate. One runs 26 kilometers to the
westward, terminating at Rodas and passing through a
number of rich sugar estates. The other runs north-
east, through Caunao, Las Guaos, Cumaneyagua, and
Barajagua, terminating at Manicaragua, 38 kilometers
distant. It penetrates the valley of the Arimao where a
good quality of tobacco, known as the Manicaragua, is
grown. The scenery is delightfully picturesque and in-
teresting. Manicaragua is on the western edge of one of
Santa Clara's most important mining districts.

From Casilda, another seaport on the south coast, a
short line has been built to the quaint, old-time city of
Trinidad, perched on the side of a mountain and founded
by the companions of Christopher Columbus in 1514.
This road has been extended further north ten kilome-
ters and will eventually reach the important railroad

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 337

junction and road center of Placetas, on the Cuba Com-
pany's line, connecting the western with the eastern end
of the Island.

From Santa Clara, the capital of the Province, several
short lines radiate in different directions. The longest
sweeps through a rich cane and cattle country, connect-
ing the villages of La Cruz, Camajuani, Taguaybon and
Remedios, and terminating at Caibarien, the principal
seaport on the northeast coast of the Province. None of
the trunk lines proposed, up to January, 1919, had
crossed the line into Camaguey.

Camaguey, owing perhaps to the fact that the prov-
ince is less thickly settled than any other in Cuba, has
but few auto drives; the only ones worthy of mention
radiating from the capital, Camaguey. One runs west
some 10 kilometers, parallel with the Cuba Company's
railroad lines, while the other extends east 34 kilome-
ters passing through the charming agricultural experi-
mental station of Camaguey. This splendid provincial
institution, under the direction of Mr. Roberto Luaces,
is located five miles from the city. Since the greater part
of the province is comparatively level, road building in
Camaguey is not expensive and will probably be rapidly
extended in the near future.

Oriente, owing to its mountainous character, presents
more serious engineering and financial problems than
any other of the Island. The wealth of its natural re-
sources, however, especially in cane lands and mineral
deposits, will undoubtedly furnish an impetus for fur-
ther building.

At present several short lines radiate from Santiago de
Cuba, its capital, located on the beautiful harbor of that
name. One of these runs due north to Dos Caminos,
and then west to Palma Soriana, passing through San
Luis. The length of this line is approximately 40 kilo-
meters. Still another, fifteen kilometers long, reaches
Alto Songo, northeast of Santiago, passing through Bon-
iato, Dos Bocas, and El Cristo.

338 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

During General Wood's administration of Santiago
Pro\^ince surveys were made at his instigation and roads
were completed to nearly all those points of historical
interest where engagements took place between Ameri-
cans and Spanish troops in the summer of 1898. One
of these lines, six kilometers in length, carries the visitor
to the village of El Caney, where the brave Spanish
General Vara del Rey lost his life in its defense. The
fortifications were shelled and captured by General Wil-
liam A. Ludlow of the U. S. Engineering Corps.

Another, reaching out towards the northeast some five
kilometers, terminates at the top of San Juan hill, where
Theodore Roosevelt got his first experience of mauser
rifle fire. On the crest of this loma a little pagoda has
been erected, from the second story of which splendid
views of the surrounding country may be enjoyed and of
all places where engagements occurred. Brass tablets
form the window sills of this picturesque outlook, each
one carrying an arrow stamped in the brass, indicating
the various points of interest, followed by a brief de-
scription of the places, with dates of battles, etc. On
the same road may be seen the famous ceiba tree under
which the armistice was signed terminating the war be-
tween Spain and the United States.

Another short line ascends to the crest of a hill in the
Sierra Maestra from which may be enjoyed a charming
view of the Bay, city and surrounding country for many
miles. The longest automobile drive in Oriente ex-
tends from the harbor of Manzanillo on the west coast
almost due east to the village of Juguani, 58 kilometers
away, passing through Yara, Veguitas and Bayamo.
This line is being rapidly extended to Baire, and thence
on to Palma Soriana, thus completing the connection
between Manzanillo and Santiago de Cuba.

A short line from Baracoa on the extreme northeastern
coast of the Island, has been built in a southerly direc-
tion to Sabanilla, 12 kilometers. Local machines can

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 339

be found at all of these points that will carry the tourist
the length of the line, enabling him to form some con-
ception of a section that otherwise could be penetrated
only by mountain ponies or on mule back.

CHAPTER XXXI
BAYS AND HARBORS

Nothing is more essential to the general prosperity of
a mercantile country than good harbors. They are the
economic gateways to the interior, through which all for-
eign trade must come and go. Cuba in this sense is es-
sentially fortunate, especially along her north coast,
where sixteen large, deep, well protected bays and har-
bors of the first order empty into the Gulf of Mexico, and
into the north Atlantic, furnishing thus direct avenues
of trade to the greatest commercial centers of the world.

Four harbors and bays of the first order are distributed
along the southern coast, emptying into the Caribbean,
and through that great tropical sea pass the avenues of
trade that connect Cuba with the republics of Central
America, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil,
Uruguay and the Argentine, while the Panama Canal
permits direct water communication, not only with the
republics of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile, but also
with the west coast of Mexico, and the United States,
as well as with Japan and the Orient. With North
Africa and the Mediterranean are direct lines of trade
through the old Bahama Channel, w^hile central and
southern Africa are reached by way of the Lesser Antilles
and Barbadoes.

Most of the foreign trade at the present time is with
the American ports along the eastern coast of the At-
lantic and through the Gulf ports by which Cuba has
access to the Mississippi Valley, while along the Gulf
Stream Cuba has a direct avenue, as well as a favorable
current, that carried her commerce to England, France
and other countries of western Europe.

Beginning with the harbors and bays of the north

340

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 341

coast we have the western group located in Pinar del Rio,
on the Gulf of Mexico, not distant from Vera Cruz and
Tampico in Mexico, or Galveston in Texas, while al-
most facing them we have New Orleans, Pascagoula,
Mobile and Pensacola, with Tampa on the Florida coast.

On this group the first is that fine deep land locked
deep-water harbor of Bahia Honda (deep bay), sixty
miles west of Havana, that was first selected by the
Government of the United States as a coaling station, but
afterwards surrendered for Guantanamo on account of
the latter's proximity to the Panama Canal and the Pa-
cific, to which it gives entrance. Bahia Honda has a
deep, rather narrow and fairly straight channel that leads
from the Gulf into a beautiful sheet of water, extending
some five or six miles into the interior, where good an-
chorage may be found for quite a fleet of vessels. A
twelve mile light is located on the western entrance of the
harbor, while two fine range lights enable shipping to
leave or enter at night. The little town of Bahia Honda,
three miles back, is connected with the port by a fine
macadam highway. Owing to the fact that this section
of Pinar del Rio, although rich in minerals, has not
been brought under development up to the present, most
of the commerce is confined to the local trade between
Bahia and Havana, sixty miles distant.

Twelve miles further east and forty-eight miles from
Havana, we have the beautiful harbor of Cabanas, a
large, double-purse-shaped, interior bay, that extends
some ten miles from east to west and furnishes one of the
most picturesque land-locked harbors on the north coast.
A small island in the entrance, on which is located one of
the old time forts of the 17th century, obscures the bay
itself from passing vessels. The shores of Cabanas are
covered with extensive sugar cane fields that furnish
cane to the surrounding mills, while its commerce is at
the present time almost entirely local.

Located in the same province, some 18 miles further
east, and only 30 from Havana, is the harbor of Mariel,

342 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

a single-purse-shaped bay, that from its narrow entrance
opens out to a broad picturesque sheet of water extending
southward some four or five miles, while several pro-
longations extend out towards the southwest, bordered
with rich sugar cane plantations. The little fishing vil-
lage of Mariel is located at the extreme head of the bay
and connected with Havana by automobile drive, as are
the two harbors previously mentioned. A high table
land extends along much of the eastern shore of this
harbor, on the summit of which stands the Cuban Naval
Academy. Near the entrance, on the eastern shore, is
located a new cement factory with a capacity of a thou-
sand barrels a day. On the western side of the entrance
is the quarantine station, to which all infested vessels are
sent, and where delightful accommodations are found
ashore for both passengers and crew, who may be de-
tained by sanitary officials of the central government.

The fine deep-water harbor of Havana, which boasts
of a foreign trade excelled in the western hemisphere
only by that of New York City, is, of course, the most
important commercial gateway of the Republic of Cuba.
It is one of those deep, narrow-necked, purse-shaped har-
bors, so characteristic of the Island, and furnishes splen-
did anchorage, with well equipped modern wharves, for
handling the enormous bulk of freight that comes and
goes throughout every day of the year. After passing
the promontories of El Morro and Cabanas, that stretch
along the eastern side of the entrance for a mile or more,
the remainder of the shores of the Bay of Havana are
comparatively low, although high ridges and hills form
a fairly close background in almost every direction.
Within the last ten years a great deal of dredging and
land reclaiming has taken place in this harbor, increas-
ing greatly not only the depth of water but also the
available building sites. A series of magnificent modern
wharves have been built along the western shore of the
harbor, furnishing splendid shipping facilities for in-
coming and outgoing vessels. The upper portions of

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 343

these buildings are occupied by the Custom House and
Quarantine authorities. The southwest extension of this
bay, recently dredged, furnishes access to deep draft
steamships up to the site of the old Spanish Arsenal,
that in 1908 was converted into the freight and passenger
yards of the United Railroads. Along the docks, where
steamers of the P. & O. SS line are moored, were built and
launched many of Spain's ships that centuries ago fought
with Great Britain for the dominion of the seas. On
the broad topped promontory that lies along the eastern
shore, southeast of Cabanas, is located Trisconia, a
splendidly equipped detention camp for immigrants and
passengers coming from infested ports in different parts
of the world. Excellent accommodations are there pro-
vided during the period of detention, which may last any-
where from five to fifteen days. This is the ''Ellis
Island" of Cuba, and has been a credit to the Republic
since the first year of its installment in 1902, during
which time it has been under the able direction of Dr.
Frank Menocal, who takes great personal pride in hav-
ing Trisconia, with its floating population, running some-
times into the thousands, one of the best appointed sta-
tions of its kind in the Western Hemisphere.

The harbor of Matanzas, sixty miles east of Havana,
is a beautiful wide mouthed bay, or open roadstead, fac-
ing on the Gulf Stream as it sweeps between northern
Cuba and southern Florida. This picturesque sheet of
water reaches back into the land some six or eight miles,
and although not noted for its depth, nevertheless fur-
nishes safe anchorage for the fleet of tramp steamers
found there during the larger part of the year, loading
sugar from the many centrals scattered throughout the
Province of Matanzas. Into this harbor, from the west,
opens the Yumuri gorge, through which runs the river
whose waters in ages past carved out the famous valley
of the Yumuri, whose beauty was extolled by Alexander
Von Humboldt during his travels in the western world.
Covering the western shores of the bay, that slope down

344 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

from the top of the hills to the water's edge, lies the city
of Matanzas, while off to the east and south may be
seen great fields of sugar cane and henequen, that form
two of the important industries of the Province.

Forty miles further east we find the beautiful land-
locked bay of Cardenas, whose northwestern shore is
formed by a long sandy strip of land extending in a curve
out into the sea and known as the Punta de Hicacos.
Cardenas Bay is some thirty miles in length from east
to west, by ten or twelve from north to south, and is
protected from the outside sea by a chain of small keys
or islands, through which a deep ship channel was
dredged during the first decade of this century. This
furnishes entrance to one of the largest sugar exporting
points of Cuba, the City of Cardenas.

East of the harbor of Cardenas lies Santa Clara Bay,
also protected by outlying keys, but without deep water
anchorage. These island dotted bays, separated from
each other only by islands, and connected by compara-
tively shallow channels, extend from Punta Hicacos,
some 300 miles eastward, to the Harbor of Nuevitas.

Seventy-five miles east of Cardenas we find the bay of
Sagua, very similar to the others, and with a depth not
exceeding twelve or fifteen feet. This harbor is located
on the northern shore of the Province of Santa Clara,
and its port, Isabela de Sagua, is the shipping point for
a large amount of the sugar produced along the north
coast of the province. The rivers emptying into the bay
of Sagua, as well as the bay itself, are noted for their
splendid fishing ground, tarpon being especially abun-
dant; also for the small delightfully flavored native
oyster.

Still further east we Have another important shipping
port known as Caibarien, located on Buena Vista Bay,
that unfortunately has an average depth of only 12 or 15
feet, necessitating lighterage out to the anchorage at Cayo
Frances, 18 miles distant, where ships of the deepest
draft find perfect protection while loading.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 345

On the north shore of the Province of Camaguey we
have but one harbor of the first order, the Bay of Nue-
vitas, but this harbor may easily lay claim to being one
of the best in the world. Its entrance is narrow, resem-
bling a river, some six miles in length and with a rather
swift running current, depending upon the flow of tide,
as it passes in or out. The Bay itself is a beautiful sheet
of water of circular form, with an extension of deep wa-
ter reaching out towards the west some 15 miles, and con-
nected with the Bay of Carabelas, Guajaba and Guanaja,
forty or fifty miles further west. Along these quiet land-
locked lagoons are located the American colonies of La
Gloria, Columbia, Punta Pelota and Guanaja.

There are many reasons for believing that the en-
trance to this harbor was the place where Columbus
spent several days scraping and cleaning the bottom of
his caravels, while a few of his companions made a jour-
ney into the interior, finding very agreeable natives but
no indications of gold. From Nuevitas is shipped
nearly all of the sugar made in the Province of Camaguey,
together with a great deal of fine hardwood, cut in the
Sierra de Cubitas Mountains.

The north shore railroad, beginning at Caibarien
some 300 kilometers distant, has its eastern terminus on
Nuevitas Bay, and will, when completed, greatly in-
crease the trade of splendid sugar and vegetable land, as
well as the mining zone, rich in iron and chrome, that
lies just south of the Sierras.

Thirty miles further east we have the harbor of Ma-
nati, with a narrow but comparatively deep and easy en-
trance, which soon opens out into the usual long pouch
shaped bay, on the shore of which are the sugar mills of
Manati. This harbor, although not ranked among the
largest, nevertheless can accommodate a large fleet of
merchant ships or tramp steamers waiting for their car-
goes of sugar and hardwood timber.

Malageta, some ten miles east of Manati, cannot be
properly ranked as a harbor of the first class, although

346 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

it furnishes protection for vessels of moderate draft.

Puerto Padre, 20 miles east of Manati, is another
large pouch-shaped deep water harbor like nearly all
those of the north coast, and owing to the location on
its southern shore of two of the largest sugar mills in
the world, Chaparra and Las Delicias, with a combined
production of over a million bags a year, it may be justly
ranked as one of the most important harbors of Oriente.

Fifty miles further east we have the open roadstead of
Gibara, a deep indentation of the sea that gives, unfortu-
nately, but little protection from northerly gales, but since
Gibara is the exit for the rich Holguin district of north-
em Oriente, its commerce is extensive.

Sixty miles further east, after rounding Lucrecia
Point, where the coast for the first time faces due east,
we have another fine deep water harbor known as Banes,
on whose shores is located a large sugar mill known as
"Boston," with an annual output of 500,000 bags.

Some ten miles southeast of Banes we enter the Bay
of Nipe, the largest landlocked harbor in Cuba. Nipe is
a beautiful sheet of water, whose southern and western
shores are low, although mountains can be seen in the dis-
tance in almost any direction. Nipe contains forty
square miles of deep water anchorage, with a width from
east to west of twelve miles and from north to south of
seven to eight miles. The Mayari River, one of the
most important streams of the north coast of Oriente
Province, empties into Nipe. On the north shore of the
bay the little town of Antilla forms the northeastern ter-
minus of the Cuba Company's railroad, connecting
Orient with Havana and the western end of the Island.
The land surrounding the bay is exceptionally rich and
is owned largely by the United Fruit Company. Here
they originally cultivated large fields of bananas, but
owing to their extensive plantations in Costa Rica, and
to the high price of sugar brought about by the war,
their Cuban properties have been converted into sugar
plantations. The splendid mills of Preston are located

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 347

on Nipe Bay, from which a half million bags of sugar
are shipped every year to the outside world. The rich
mines of the Mayari district belonging to the Bethlehem
Steel Company are located back of Nipe Harbor and con-
tribute considerably to the commerce of this port.

Some five or six miles east of the entrance of Nipe we
have the deep double harbors of Cabonico and Levisa;
the latter large and circular in form, while Cabonico is
comparatively small, and separated from Levisa by a
narrow peninsula that extends almost into the single
entrance of the two bays. The lands around this harbor
are largely covered with forests of magnificent hard
woods, while the soil is rich enough to produce cane for
a quarter of a century or longer without replanting.

Some 15 miles further east we have another fine large
bay with a narrow entrance on the Atlantic, kno\Mi as
Sagua de Tanamo. This bay is very irregular in form,
with many ramifications or branches reaching out to-
wards the east, south and west, while into it flows the
Tanamo River, draining the forest covered valleys and
basins that lie between the mountains of eastern Oriente
and the north shore.

Baracoa, an open roadstead, celebrated owing to the
fact that here the Spanish conquerors made their first
settlement in the Pearl of the Antilles in 1512, is a very
picturesque bay, but unfortunately with almost no pro-
tection from northerly winds that prevail during the
winter months. Cocoanuts form the chief article of ex-
port from Baracoa, which is the last port of any note on
the north coast of Cuba.

Although the south coast of Cuba contains some of
the finest harbors in the world, Dame Nature was not
quite so generous with her commercial gateways along
the Caribbean as along the shores bordering on the At-
lantic and the Gulf of Mexico. Some 85 miles west of
Cape Maisi we come to the Bay of Guantanamo, a long,
deep indentation from the Caribbean, extending ten or
twelve miles straight up into the land, and in its upper

348 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

extension opening out into quite a wide sheet of water.
Guantanamo is deep, well protected, and of sufficient
area to furnish excellent anchorage for the navy of the
United States. That which for naval purposes gives
Guantanamo especial strategic value is the fact that
its mouth, free from obstructions, is so wide that three
first-class battleships can leave or enter at full speed,
without danger of collision or interference, either with
each other or with the inclosing shores. This feature of
the bay, which is not often found in well protected har-
bors, together with the fact that it practically commands
the Caribbean Sea, and lies almost in a direct line between
the Atlantic Coast and the Panama Canal, were the rea-
sons why Guantanamo was selected in preference to all
other bays as the United Naval Station in the Republic
of Cuba. During the last ten years many improvements
have taken place in Guantanamo and today its impor-
tance is not excelled by that of any other naval station in
the Western Hemisphere. The Guantanamo Valley, one
of the richest in the Island, furnishes a large amount of
cane that supplies seven or eight sugar mills located a
little back from the shore of the Bay.

Fifty miles further west, near the center of the south-
ern coast of Oriente, the pent up streams and basins of
the geological past have broken through the chain of
mountains bordering the Caribbean and by erosion have
formed one of the finest and most picturesque harbors in
the world. The Morro of Santiago stands on a high
promontory at the eastern entrance of its narrow mouth,
passing through which the Bay rapidly opens up into a
charming panorama of palm covered islands, strips of
white beach, and distant mountains, that combine to ren-
der Santiago one of the most beautiful harbors in the
world. The City of Santiago lies on a side hill sloping
down to the water's edge, and owing to the fact of its
being the southeastern terminus of the Cuba Company's
lines, which connect it with Havana, and to the natural
wealth of the Province of Oriente itself, of which San-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 349

tiago is the chief commercial city, it has no rival in the
Republic outside of Havana. Several lines of steamers
connect Santiago, not only with the Atlantic and Gulf
ports of the United States, but also with Jamaica, Porto
Rico, Panama and Europe.

Manzanillo, located on the west coast of Oriente, at the
head of the Gulf of Guacanabo, is the most important
harbor in that section of the province, and owing to
the rich country lying back of it, whence are shipped not
only sugar, but hardwoods, hides and minerals, Man-
zanillo Harbor is one of the most important in the east-
ern end of the Island. Between this and Cienfuegos,
which is the most important port on the south coast
of central Cuba, we have a stretch of several hundred
miles in which only harbors of the second order are
found.

Cienfuegos, or a ''Hundred Fires," is another of those
beautiful, storm protected inland pockets, with a narrow
river-like channel connecting it with the Caribbean. An
old time 17th century fort nestles on the western shore of
the entrance, an interesting reminder of the days in which
every city and every harbor had to protect itself from
the incursions of privateers and pirates. Cienfuegos
Bay extends from southeast to northwest a distance of
about fifteen miles, with a varying width of from three
to seven miles. The bay is dotted with charming islands,
many of which have been converted into delightful homes
and tropical gardens, where the wealthy people of the
city pass most of their time in summer. The city itself
lies on the northern shore and is comparatively modern,
with wide streets and sidewalks. Good wharves and
spacious warehouses line the shores of the commercial
part of the city. Cienfuegos is the main gateway, not
only for the sugar of southern Santa Clara but for the
whole southern coast of the central part of the Republic.
Its commerce ranks next to that of Santiago de Cuba, and
the bay itself is one of the most interesting in the Island.

Further west, towards Cape San Antonio, while we

350 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

have many comparatively shallow harbors and embar-
caderos or shipping points for coasting vessels and those
of light draft, there are no other deep harbors aside from
that of the Bay of Cochinos, or Pig Gulf, which is really
an indentation of the coast line, extending from the
Caribbean up into the land some fifteen miles, with a
width of 10 or 12 miles at its mouth, gradually tapering
towards the north, but furnishing no protection from
southerly gales.

On either side of this bay are located low lands and
swamps including those of the Cienaga de Zapata, most
of which will never be cultivated unless drained. Ex-
tensive forests of hardwood timber surround the bay in
all directions. Several big drainage propositions have
been projected at different times but none, up to the
present, have been carried into execution.

Batabano, almost due south of Havana, is quite a
shipping point, receiving fish, sponge and charcoal from
the shallow waters and low forests along the south coast
of Havana Province and Pinar del Rio. Fruit and veg-
etables are landed here from the Isle of Pines, but ow-
ing to the shallow waters of the bay and its utter lack of
protection from any direction but the north, it can hardly
be considered a harbor.

Of harbors of the second order, Cuba has some twenty
on the north coast, most of which have depths varying
from 10 to 15 feet, although a few may be found diffi-
cult of entrance at low tide for boats drawing over ten
feet. Beginning on the northwest coast of Pinar del
Rio, near Cape San Antonio, we have El Cajon, Guar-
diana Bay, and moving northward, Pinatillo, Mantua,
Dimas and San Cayetano. At all of these with the ex-
ception of the first, the light draft coasting steamers of
the Menendez Line stop every five days in their trips
around the western end of the Island, between Habana
and Cienfuegos on the south coast. Santa Lucia, a few
miles west of San Cayetano, is used as the shipping port
for copper from the Matahambre Mines. The ore, how-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 351

ever, is conveyed in lighters across the bay and trans-
ferred to steamers near Cayo Jutias.

East of Havana, about half way to Matanzas, we have
the embarcadero of Santa Cruz, from which many veg-
etables, especially onions, are shipped to Havana. Still
further east, on the outer island shore is a harbor of the
second order near Paredon Grande, carrying twelve feet,
and used largely by fishermen and turtlers in stormy
weather. Between Cayo Confitas and Cayo Verde, there
is a wide break in the barrier reef that permits vessels
in distress to find protection during periods of storm.
Some thirty miles west of Nuevitas is another break in
the barrier reef over which schooners drawing not more
than seven or eight feet can find shelter in the Bay of
Guajaba. This is the deepest water approach to the
American colony of La Gloria. A little blasting would
improve it.

Nuevas Grandes, located midway between Nuevitas
and Manati, on the coast of Camaguey, is not easy of
entrance in bad weather owing to surf breaking on the
outlying reefs, nor is the country back of it sufficiently
productive to give promise of much commerce in the
future.

On the north coast of Oriente we have a number of
comparatively shallow harbors, some of which furnish
very good protection for vessels in bad weather. The
more important of these are Puerto Vita, Puerto Sama,
Tanamo and Puerto Naranjo.

Along the south coast of Oriente we have Imias Sa-
bana la Mar, Puerto Escondido, Playa de Cuyuco and
Daiquiri which, with the exception of the latter, from
which the Daiquiri iron mines ship their ore, have prac-
tically no commerce.

West of Santiago, on the same coast, are the little
landing places of Dos Rios, Cotibar, Turquino and
Mota. Between the last two, however, we have a fairly
good harbor knowTi as Portillo, that furnishes ample
protection for vessels drawing not more than 15 feet,

352 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

and is the shipping point for the output of the sugar
estates that surround Portillo Bay.

Between Cabo Cruz and Manzanillo are the embar-
caderos of Nequiro, Media Luna, Ceiba Hueca and Cam-
pechuela, from nearly all of which a considerable amount
of sugar is shipped during the season.

North of Manzanillo, and extending west along the
coast of Camaguey and Santa Clara, we have the shal-
low harbors of Romero, Santa Cruz del Sur, Jucaro,
Tunas de Zaza and Casilda. The southern coast steam-
ers stop at each of these ports, and quite a large amount
of sugar and hardwood is shipped from them.

From Cienfuegos west we have the Bahia de Cochinos
and Batabano already mentioned, together with La
Paloma, Punta de Cartas, Bay of Cortes and the Gulf of
Corrientes, all of which are located along the south shore
of Pinar del Rio, and have quite an extensive local
trade in charcoal, fish and hardwood.

CHAPTER XXXII
RAILROAD SYSTEMS IN CUBA

Somewhat strange to relate, railroad building, inso-
far as it applied to Spanish territory, had its inception
in Cuba, at a time when the Island was one of Spain's
colonial possessions. A few rich planters owning large
properties at Guines, an exceptionally fertile district
some forty miles from the capital, had kept in touch
with experiments in railroad building and steam loco-
motives, as a new source of power in the commercial
world, and for the purpose of trying out the practica-
bility of this new means of transportation bought a steam
railway locomotive, together with the necessary rails and
equipment, for use in transporting sugar cane and other
produce from one point to another on their o^\ti planta-
tions. Besides this, the Xuevitas-Puerto Principe Rail-
road was the first public service steam railroad ever built
on Spanish soil.

What is known as the United Railways of Havana may
justly claim to be the father of public railway transpor-
tation in the Island, since the founders of the Company
took advantage of the railway nucleus at Guines, and
gradually extended the line through various private prop-
erties until it reached the city of Havana, while branches
and connections were thrown out in other directions.
With the consent of the Colonial Government, the entire
property was later acquired at auction by an English
Company and began business as the United Railways
of Havana.

In 1886 the Company took over another short line
known as the Alfonso XII Railroad, that had been built
three years before. After various fusions and transfers,

353

354 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

these properties were combined in one, with an initial
capital of $16,875,196. The complete system of wharves
and warehouses at Regla passed into the possession of
the Company at the same time. Afterwards the short
line connecting the city of Havana with the suburb of
Marianao was absorbed, followed later by the taking
over of the Cardenas and Jucaro Line.

In 1906 the Matanzas Railway was brought into the
corporation, giving it at that time a combined length of
1127 kilometers, most of which was included in the
Provinces of Havana and Matanzas. Later the United
Railways v/ere extended into the Province of Santa Clara
as far east as La Esperanza, making in the year 1903,
over the Cuban Central Railway, the much-desired con-
nection with the Cuba Railroad to Santiago de Cuba
and the Bay of Nipe. In 1907 the Western Railway of
Havana, connecting the capital with Pinar del Rio, and
the still further extension westward to the town of
Guane, were brought under the control of the United
Railways.

From Guane north and east a new North Shore Road
for Pinar del Rio has been projected, which will circle
around the western end of the Organ Mountains passing
through the towns of Mantua, Dimas and La Esperanza,
paralleling the Gulf Coast of the Province of Pinar del
Rio until it reaches Bahia Honda, where it will connect
with the western extension of the Havana Central now
terminating at Guanajay. This projected line, which
has been approved by Congress and the Railroad Com-
mission, will pass through a comparatively undeveloped
section of the Island, whose rich mineral zones and fer-
tile agricultural lands between Bahia Honda and Guan-
ajay have long suffered for lack of transportation. A
very substantial subsidy which will materially assist in
the construction of the road, may be considered as a guar-
antee of its early completion.

The new electric lines connecting Havana with Guana-
jay in the west, and Guines towards the southeast, were

\^ii!b 3d} o^I o ion &i £a£vi;H lo vJjd adT

§niarajT - —~\ ,BduD ^o giJnsD bfioiliei

.oa^uoo Ib ol .dtuoa bfifi Jjt^w .J?j;o

1 £ ni b9br/oiq a^od '

m^^^^

GRAND CENTRAL RAILWAY STATION, HAVANA

The city of Havana is not only the chief port but also the chief
railroad centre of Cuba, from which radiate trunk lines running
east, west and south, to all parts of the island, besides, of course,
numerous short suburban lines. Since the establishment of the
Cuban Republic, by mutually advantageous arrangement between
the Government and the companies, a general terminal for all these
roads has been provided in a handsome and commodious building
conveniently placed adjacent to the water front.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 355

joined to the United Railways, and a magnificent rail-
way terminal was built on the old Arsenal grounds, ac-
quired from the Government. This is a splendid mod-
ern four-story building of brick, stone and steel, with
two artistic towers reaching a height of 125 feet, making
it one of the most imposing edifices in the City. From
this station trains arrive and depart for every part of
the Island.

The combined mileage at present operating under the
control of the United Railways of Havana is 1,609 kilo-
meters or 963 miles.

From the viewpoint of conmiercial progress and util-
ity it may be safely stated that Sir William Van Home,
by building the much needed connecting link of railroad
between the eastern terminus of the United Railways at
Santa Clara and the two terminals of the Cuba Com-
pany's road at Antilla on the north coast, and Santiago
de Cuba on the south, conferred on this Island a greater
benefit than any other one man in that realm of affairs.

Immediately after the American occupation of the
Island, Sir William Van Home visited Cuba, en route
to Demarara, British Guiana, and got only as far as
Cienfuegos, Cuba. He later rode over the rich country
lying between Santa Clara and the city of Santiago de
Cuba, and in his fertile brain was promptly visualized
a line of railroad passing through the center of the three
eastern and largest provinces of the Island, and terminat-
ing on the shore of the two finest bays of Oriente, con-
necting this by rail vn^th the west portion of Cuba. The
Foraker Resolutions prohibited the securing of a fran-
chise for the building of such a railroad, and but little
encouragement was given Sir William Van Home, while
a number of obstacles were presented, including diffi-
culties in securing right of w^ay for the proposed rail-
road, without the right of condemnation. OwTiers of
properties that were practically inaccessible, and whose
products could not be exported except at great cost, were
seemingly blind to the advantages that would accrue to

356 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

them from the construction of such a line. This big-
brained pioneer, however, who had only recently built
the Canadian Pacific across the plains and mountains of
the North American Continent, did not hesitate a mo-
ment in undertaking and carrying out his project of
connecting the capital of Cuba with the rich and unde-
veloped territory lying to the eastward. Where right of
way was not granted willingly he bought the properties
outright, and built his railroad practically over his own
farms and fields, with but little local assistance and no
land grants of any kind.

The Cuba Company's line, including the branches
contributary to it and under its direction, measures 717
miles. The main line begins at Santa Clara and passes
through Placetas del Sur, Zaza del Medio, Ciego de
Avila, Camaguey, Marti, Victoria de las Tunas, Caco-
cum, Alto Cedro and San Luis, to Santiago de Cuba, a
distance of 573 kilometers. From Alto Cedro a line
was built north to Antilla, 50 kilometers distant on Nipe
Bay, whence the greater portion of the freight destined
for northern markets is shipped directly to New York.

Of the numerous branch lines, beginning in the west,
may be mentioned two that leave Placetas del Sur, one
extending north to Placetas and through connections to
the harbor of Caibarien; the other, built in a southerly
direction, to the city of Trinidad on the south coast.
From Zaza del Medio, in the Province of Santa Clara, a
branch extends almost due south to Sancti Spiritus, and
thence, through connections with the Sancti Spiritus Rail-
road to Zaza on the shore of the Caribbean. At Ciego
de Avila, the Cuba Company's road is crossed by what
is known as the Jucaro & Moron Road, built many years
ago as a military line through the center of the trocha,
or barrier, intended to prevent insurrectionary troops
passing from Camaguey into the western part of the
Island. This short stretch of railway connects San Fer-
nando on the north coast with Jucaro on the Caribbean,

At Camaguey, the old Camaguey and Nuevitas Road

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 357

during many years had enjoyed a monopoly in the trans-
portation of products to the coast. The Cuba Company
absorbed and incorporated the road, securing thus a val-
uable adjunct to its system. The Bay of Nuevitas was
not of sufficient depth to permit large vessels loading at
the old wharves, so the Cuba Company extended the road
j&ve kilometers to Punta de Pastelillo, where sugar ware-
houses and wharves have been built, so that sugar from
all the mills of central Camaguey can be delivered aboard
ship, doing away with the old system of lightering out to
deep water.

From Marti, 60 kilometers east of Camaguey on the
main line, a southeastern extension was built across coun-
try to the City of Bayamo, in the southwestern center of
the Province of Oriente, 127 kilometers distant. An-
other branch built from Manzanillo on the west coast
of Bayamo, 56 kilometers in length, opened up a section
of country previously inaccessible. From Bayamo a
road parallel to the main line has been built east to San
Luis, 98 kilometers, furnishing an exit for one of the
richest sections of the Cauto Valley, and also for the
rich mineral zones that lie on the southern slope of the
Sierra Maestra Mountains. This line from Marti to
San Luis passes through one continuous stretch of sugar
cane fields, extending as far as the eye can reach, north
and south, throughout its entire length.

From Cacocum a short line of 18 kilometers extends
north to Holguin. Up to the completion of this con-
necting link, the city of Holguin, in north central Oriente,
had been connected with the outside world only through
the medium of a short road terminating at Gibara on the
Atlantic coast, where coasting steamers stopped weekly.

A branch from Placetas del Sur to Casilda, 90 kilo-
meters, is in process of construction. Another will con-
nect the city of Camaguey with Santa Cruz del Sur on
the Caribbean, 98 kilometers away. At San Luis con-
nection is made with the Guantanamo & Western Rail-
way, where passengers for the United States Naval Sta-

358 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

tion on Guantanamo Bay, and the rich sugar districts
lying north and west of the harbor, are transferred.

The Cuba system is equipped with 156 locomotives,
125 passenger coaches, 5013 freight cars, 70 baggage
cars and 131 construction cars. In the harbors of An-
tilla and Nuevitas twelve steamers, tugs and launches
are employed in making the various necessary trans-
fers of material from one point to another. On the lines
of the Cuba system and its branches are 30 sugar estates
and mills, with nine new ones under construction. Daily
trains connecting Havana with Santiago de Cuba leave
the terminal station at 10.00 p.m., making the trip in
about 24 hours.

With the completion of the Cuba Company's lines, the
interior of the Provinces of Oriente, Camaguey and much
of Santa Clara were opened up to the commerce of the
world for the first time. During the years that have
elapsed since its completion, a large amount of valuable
hard wood, cedar, mahogany, etc., growing along the
line, have been cut and shipped to nearby seaports for
export to the United States and other countries. With
the building of this line, too, some of the richest lands
of Cuba were rendered available for the production of
sugar, and today a vast area is under cultivation in cane,
and four hundred thousand tons or more of sugar, with
the assistance of this road, was delivered each year to
the Allies who were fighting in France and Belgium.
Thus Sir William Van Home's foresight enabled the
Republic of Cuba to "do its bit" in a very practical way
towards the furtherance of the cause of universal de-
mocracy.

No account of the Cuba Railroad would, however, be
complete which failed to make mention of the part
played in its construction and initial organization by
Mr. R. G. Ward, of New York City, whose energy and
industry, first as manager of construction and later as
manager of operation, combined with the character of
the men by whom he surrounded himself are generally

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 359

recognized as having been potent if not dominant fac-
tors in determining the rapidity with which the original
main line of that railroad, extending from Santa Clara
to Santiago, was built, and the promptness and thorough-
ness with which it was put into operation. The im-
portance of this achievement is emphasized, when it is
taken into consideration that the entire line was located
and built without the right of eminent domain, which
necessitated the acquisition of practically the whole of
the right of way through private negotiation. It is stated
that the cross-ties and rails were placed by track-laying
machines of his devising, which, with crews of less than
one hundred men, could, and often did, lay dowTi three
miles of full-tied, full-spiked and full-bolted track per
day per machine. He also is credited with having in-
augurated the policy of employing Cubans or residents
of Cuba, whenever it was possible to obtain them to do
the work required. Rather than import telegraph op-
erators needed to run the newly constructed railroad, he
opened and operated, free of all cost or expense to the
students, a School of Telegraphy, under the direction
of Horace H. McGinty, through whose administration
nearly one hundred operators were qualified for posi-
tions in less than six months. Sir William Van Home,
who himself was an expert railroad telegraph operator,
regarded this as a "marvelous achievement, creditable
alike to Mr. Ward, to Mr. McGinty, and to the char-
acter and capacity of the young Cuban students;" many
of whom have since held good positions in Cuba, in
Mexico and in the Argentine Republic.

The Cuba Central Road of the Province of Santa
Clara occupies third place in commercial importance
among Cuba's system of railroads. This Company's
lines were built largely for the benefit of the older sugar
estates of Santa Clara, located around Sagua la Grande,
Remedios, Caribarien, Cienfuentes, Isabel de las Lajas,
etc. The main line of the Cuba Central extends from
Isabel de Sagua, a port on the north coast, almost due

360 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

north to Cruces, a junction on the Cuba Road midway
between Santa Clara and Cienfuegos.

Another important division of the line runs from Sagua
east to the seaport of Caibarien, passing through Cama-
juani and Remedios. The Cuba Central lines, while
public highways in every sense of the word, may be
classed among the roads dedicated largely to the service
of the sugar planters of Santa Clara.

Among the independent projected lines of Cuba, the
North Shore Road, at present under construction at sev-
eral different points in the Provinces of Camaguey and
Santa Clara, is one of marked importance. This road
has its western terminal at Caibarien, on the north shore
of Santa Clara, whence it extends eastward, passing
through an exceptionally rich valley that furnishes cane
to some half-dozen large sugar mills, and continues east-
ward through Moron, in the Province of Camaguey. It
parallels the north coast, extending eastward across the
rich grazing lands of the Caunao River, and stretching
out further eastward, traverses the virgin forests that lie
between the Sierra de Cubitas and the Bays of Guanaja
and Guajaba. Leaving the Cubitas slope, it crosses the
Maximo and eventually reaches deep water anchorage on
the shores of the western extension of Nuevitas Harbor.

This line is at present under construction from Nue-
vitas westward and from Moron both east and west. In
the winter of 1918-19 the line was finished from the deep
water terminal on Nuevitas Harbor as far west as the
Maximo River. When completed it will pass through
one of the richest agricultural and mineral sections of
the Island.

From the crossing of the Maximo a branch line is being
built around the eastern end of the Sierra de Cubitas in
order to tap the rich Cubitas iron mines, whose deposits
are waiting only transportation in order to contribute a
large share of wealth to the prosperity of the Republic.

CHAPTER XXXIII
MONEY AND BANKING

A PERUSAL of Cuban history shows that within a few
years after the country was settled, questions in regard
to the exchange value of its moneys arose, which were not
effectually resolved till the lapse of nearly four centuries
later, upon the establishment of the Cuban Republic.

As with the other early Spanish colonies of the New
World, the circulating medium was at first solely metallic.
A credit currency was not suited to a primitive country,
whose foreign trade was largely clandestine, open to
piracy and other perils, its lawful commerce being limited
to the port of Cadiz, Spain, under the monopoly of a
board of trade knowTi as the "Contratacion de las Indias,"
succeeded in 1740 by the "Real Compania de la Habana,"
till the English occupation in 1762.

The position of Cuba on the highroad between Europe
and Latin America made its harbors the Mecca of the
Spanish fleets of those days. The gold and silver mines
of Mexico and South America poured their millions into
the Island after the year 1545, when the deposits of San
Luis Potosi were opened to the world, the volume of the
output being brought to Havana before distribution to
Europe and other parts.

Instead of ships making the transatlantic journey alone
as at present, large merchant fleets, laden with immense
treasure, were convoyed by war vessels at long intervals,
as a safeguard against filibusters and buccaneers as well
as to preclude possible competition.

In 1550 a monetary crisis occurred in Havana, owing
to the failure of the governor, Dr. Gonzalo Perez de
Angulo, to enforce the provision of the Spanish law, that
the silver Real should be estimated at 34 maravedis, in-
stead of 40 to 44, the commercial rate prevailing at Vera

.i6i

362 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Cruz, Santo Domingo, Cartagena de las Indias and other
points near the silver mines. The governor, actuated by
private interests, claimed that conditions in Cuba justified
the same rate as in these places, and that the legal rate
of 34 to 1, if applied, would drain the country of its silver
stock.

These views were also expressed by travellers going
from Mexico to Spain, who were obliged to make a long
stoppage in Havana, where their money was exchanged,
insisting that they should receive the larger or commer-
cial rate for their silver as in other places.

Not disposed to change his attitude in the matter, the
Spanish King issued a royal circular reasserting the legal
rate of 34 to 1 for Cuba, under a penalty of 100,000
maravedis, instead of 10,000 as fixed in his former order,
for each violation.

The sovereign mandate was complied with, as peace
and policy required, but this demand for a higher valua-
tion of money in Cuba than in the mother country is
taken as the origin of the premium afterwards placed on
Spanish coin, with which the people of later times are
familiar.

When in the year 1779 the Spanish gold onza was
coined, its par value was estimated at 16 pesos in Spain.
But in Cuba it was shortly afterwards taken to represent
17 pesos, or a premium of about 6%, which it continued
to hold until the repatriation of Spanish money a few
years ago. This premium was expected to keep gold in
the country, at an excess valuation, along with the annual
output of $800,000 in silver coming from Mexico, sugar
and tobacco being exported from Cuba to North America
and Europe as an offset thereto.

When the modern Spanish centen or alfonsino, and the
French Louis or 20 franc gold piece, came into vogue,
they were also admitted to Cuba at the same ratio as the
onza, namely a 6% premium or 17 to 18 approximately,
to the detriment of Cuban industry and commerce,
throughout the course of the nineteenth century.

•"-r-".^--

LEOPOLDO CANCIO

Born at Sancti Spiritus on May 30, 1851, Leopoldo Cancio y
Luna rose to eminence as a jurist, economist and financier; and for
many years has filled the chair of Economics and Finance in the
University of Havana. As one of the founders of the Autonomist
party he became a Deputy in the Spanish Cortes after the Ten
Years' War. Under the Governorship of General Brooke he was
Assistant Secretary and under General Leonard Wood he was Sec-
retary of Finance, an office which he now fills in the Cabinet of
President Menocal. He was the author of the great monetary
reforms of 1914.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 363

In the year 1868 Spain passed from a silver to a double
standard, adopting the peseta as the monetary unit, equal
in weight and fineness to the French franc and that of
other countries of the Latin Union, composed of France,
Belgium, Italy, Switzerland and Greece by the monetary
conventions of 1865 and 1868. The Isabellan silver
escudo, adopted in Spain as the unit by the law of June
24, 1864, was thereby demonetized.

But the Spanish peseta, consisting of gold or silver
indifferently, while circulating freely in Cuba along with
French gold and American currency in recent times till
1915, did not become the unit of value in the Island.
The Spanish gold dollar (peso oro Espanol), an imagi-
nary coin equal to five Spanish gold pesetas (of 24.8903
grains of pure gold each) considered at a premium of 106,
weighing 21.13 grains of fine gold (as a result of the 6%
premium), and circulating in the form of current Span-
ish or French gold pieces, was taken as the standard.
By reason of such premium these coins were received in
the country at $5.30 oro espanol for the centen (25 peseta
gold piece) and $4.24 oro espanol for the Louis and
doblon (25 franc and 25 peseta gold pieces of equal
weight and fineness), which values they held till the last
of Spanish money circulation in the Island.

The use of Colonial paper money in Cuba, during the
wars with the Spanish government, did not substantially
lessen the demand for actual coin, and it was not until
after the Spanish- American War of 1898 that new condi-
tions arose which afforded credit and security for the
introduction of a composite system of currency.

When the American government was established at
Santiago in 1898, one of its first acts was to stabilize the
currency of the eastern part of the Island. United
States money was forthwith adopted as the lawful medium
and Spanish silver was eliminated accordingly. In the
provinces of Havana, Pinar del Rio, Matanzas and Santa
Clara, Spanish gold and silver continued in use, along
with French gold and U. S. currency, at varying market

364 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

quotations from day to day, until the adoption of a na-
tional standard by the Cuban Congress under the law
of October 29, 1914, by virtue of which the Cuban gold
peso, of weight and fineness similar to the American
dollar, was declared the unit, and United States money a
legal tender.

Under the authority of the Secretary of Finance, Span-
ish and other moneys were shipped abroad from Cuba as
follows

Fiscal Year 1914
-1915 (ending June 30th) :

United States $ 3,032,529.00

Spain 1,435,192.00

Canary Islands 66,000,00 $4,533,721.00

Fiscal Year 1915
-1916:

United States 17,337,734.00

Spain 17,411,003.00

France 60,000.00

Canary Islands 38,300.00 34,847,037.00

Fiscal Year 1916
-1917:

United States 317,253.00

Spain 24,332,707.00

Mexico 45,000.00

Canary Islands 13,240.00 24,708,200.00

Total, reduced to U. S. Currency $64,088,958.00

Of the above shipments, those to the United States were
principally for recoinage to Cuban gold of the new issue
and were brought back later in national coin. They also
include $5,934,810.00 Spanish silver (value in U. S.
currency) sent to Spain between August, 1915, and June,
1917. This delicate operation was affected gradually
and in such a manner as not to disturb the monetary or
exchange values of the country. By June 1, 1916, all
conversions of accounts had been practically made to the
new system.

As a result of the new monetary law and its regulations,
the entire supply of Cuban money was minted at Phila-
delphia, through the medium of the National Bank of

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 365

Cuba, the Government Fiscal Agents, in the following
quantities :

Gold Coins: $20 pieces $ 1,135,000

10 pieces 12,635,000

5 pieces 9,140,000

4 pieces 540,000

2 pieces 320,000

1 pieces 17,250 $23,787,250

Silver Coins: $1 pieces 2,819,000

40^ pieces 1,128,000

20^ pieces 2,090,000

10^ pieces 625,000 6,662,000

Nickel Coins : 5<f pieces 340,450

24 pieces 228,210

H pieces 187,120 755,780

Total Coinage $31,205,030

The above national supply of coin, together with per-
haps twice the same amount of U. S. currency in general
circulation, has been found sufficient for the country's
normal needs, and Cuba thereby automatically becomes,
in law and in fact, a part of the American monetary
system of the present day.

As the country exports the bulk of its products and im-
ports most articles of consumption and use, including ma-
chinery and implements, it follows that Cuba is in normal
times one of the highest priced countries of the world,
and under conditions due to the European War the cost
of living is enormous.

To move the country's resources annually requires the
use of millions of dollars from abroad, which the banks
obtain and circulate in legal tender (which means United
States money and Cuban coin) according to local de-
mands.

It follows, therefore, that the chief functions of bank-
ing in Cuba are Discount, Deposit, Exchange, Collections,
Collateral Loans, Foreign Credits and the distribution of
money throughout the country.

The principal banks serving the financial needs of
Cuba are the following :

366 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

The National City Bank of New York. Capital,
$25,000,000.

Banco Espafiol de la Isla de Cuba. Capital,
$8,000,000.

Banco National de Cuba. Capital, $6,860,455.

Banco Territorial de Cuba. Capital, $5,000,000.

Royal Bank of Canada. Capital and surplus, $25,-
000,000.

The Trust Company of Cuba. Capital, $500,000.

Banco Mercantile Americano de Cuba. Capital,
$2,000,000; surplus, $500,000.

Banco Prestatario de Cuba. Capital, $500,000.
(Makes loans on personal property, approved notes,
mortgages, etc.)

CHAPTER XXXIV
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION

Thixking men and women, the world over, realize
that the hope, security and well being of the future lies
in properly educating the children of the present. From
an educated community we have nothing to fear. Mis-
takes in government policies may occur, but where in-
telligence dwells, right and justice will soon prevail over
wTong. Education to-day is universally recognized as
the most efficient and potent safeguard against crime and
lawlessness of all kind, and in no section of the world is
the need of general education more gravely manifest than
in the Latin-American Republics of the Western Hemi-
sphere.

Education in all of these countries, from the begin-
ning of their existence as colonies of Spain, has been,
unfortunately under the control of the Church, and with
the exception of Cuba, largely so remains to-day. Even
in this progressive little Republic, the clerical influence
on tuition, from the kindergarten to the university, is more
or less prevalent. The influence of the priest and the
prelate, exerted in the home, usually through the mother,
still casts its shadow over true educational progress, es-
pecially among those of the gentler sex. There are, of
course, many well educated women in Cuba, but they are
w^omen whose intellectual longings and aspirations could
not be held in check.

True, some of the most brilliant men in Cuba have been
pupils of church institutions, but men of this stamp and
minds of this calibre held from birth all the promise
and potency of greatness. Their intellectual lights could
not be hidden under the proverbial bushel.

In 1896 the population of the Island was 1,572,791,

367

368 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

of whom 1,400,884 were unable to read, 33,003 knew how
to read but not to write, while 19,158 had received the
advantages of what was termed higher education. Even
this paucity of true knowledge was frequently superficial
and sadly warped by obsolete tradition.

When, at the beginning of American intervention, that
generous and able group of American officers under Gen-
eral Wood took charge of affairs in Cuba, the need of even
a rudimentary education among the untutored masses
was painfully apparent. A report of conditions prevail-
ing was forwarded to Washington. Secretary Root re-
ferred the matter to President Eliot of Harvard, and as a
result Mr. Alexis E. Frye was sent to Havana to establish
in Cuba the American school system, or one as nearly
like that in vogue in the United States as conditions would
permit.

The selection of Mr. Frye was a wise one, and the
people have never ceased to be grateful for the admirable
and unselfish efforts of that remarkably clever teacher to
place public instruction on a firm foundation in Cuba.
After going carefully over the ground and studying the
situation thoroughly Mr. Frye, working by candle light
in a backroom of the Hotel Pasaje, drafted the school
law and wrote the rules and regulations that today form
the base of public instruction in the island. Soon after,
Mr. Frye was appointed Superintendent of Schools. His
salary was $400 a month, but every month's pay check
was divided into eight parts and distributed among those
schools where it would do the most good. He would ac-
cept no recompense whatever for himself.

In the work of establishing a modern system of educa-
tion in Cuba Mr. Frye received valuable aid from a re-
markably gifted and brilliant young Cuban named Lin-
coln de Zayas. Dr. de Zayas was a descendant of one
of the most prominent families in Havana. He had been
educated in the United States, was graduated from the
school of medicine of Columbia University in New York,
was a master of some five or six languages, and knew

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 369

the character of his own people. He assisted Mr. Frye
in solving many delicate problems and in overcoming
troublesome obstacles, many of which resulted from the
former ecclesiastical control of everything pertaining to
education. Dr. Francisco Barrero, a writer, student and
poet, was made assistant director of education.

During the second year of American intervention, Mr.
Frye interested Harvard University in the subject of
Cuban education. This finally resulted in an invitation
from that institution to a large body of potential Cuban
teachers to come to Boston and enjoy during the summer
months special instruction provided for them by the presi-
dent and faculty of the University. Through Mr. Frye's
efforts and those of General Wood, then Military Gov-
ernor of the Island, the Washington government became
interested in the school problem in Cuba, and through
the War Department furnished passage in one of the large
American transports for all teachers who cared to visit
the United States in the interest of Cuban education.
Some 1600 teachers, mostly young ladies, were selected
from applicants in various parts of the Island, and con-
veyed on the U. S. transport General McClellan to the
city of Boston, where they were comfortably lodged and
cared for during a period of three months as guests of
Harvard University.

The direct educational benefit derived by these young
Cuban teachers was almost incalculable. A great ma-
jority of them had no knowledge whatever of the Eng-
lish language, and knew but little of the outside world.
The press of Cuba in those days was limited in its fund of
general information or other matter that might be of edu-
cational value to the reading public. Nor had education,
especially among women, been encouraged during the
days of Spain's control over the island.

The summer work at Harvard was a revelation. The
educational seed fell upon receptive soil, and the young
teachers who were fortunate enough to be selected as
guests of that institution gave an excellent account of

370 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

themselves in work that followed during the early days
of the Republic. Incidentally Mr. Frye chose one of
these young teachers as his companion through life.
After Mr. Frye's departure, Lieut. Hanna, at the sugges-
tion of General Wood, made some changes and additions
to the public school system of Cuba, conforming it some-
what to the methods then in vogue in the State of Ohio.

With the installation of the Cuban Republic in 1902
public instruction came directly under the supervision of
the Central or Federal Government, and the Secretary of
Public Instruction was made a member of the President's
Cabinet, adding thus dignity and importance to that
branch of work on which the character of succeeding gen-
erations depended. Unfortunately for the cause of edu-
cation it has been found rather difficult to separate the
Department of Public Instruction from a certain amount
of political interference, which has tended to mar its effi-
ciency and retard progress.

With the beginning of the second Government of Inter-
vention in 1906, Dr. Lincoln de Zayas was made Secre-
tary of Public Instruction under Governor Magoon, and
with his untiring devotion to the cause of true knowledge,
as well as his keen insight into the modern or more im-
proved methods of teaching, interest in public instruction
in Cuba was greatly revived, and English began to as-
sume a far more important role in the primary and gram-
mar schools than in former days.

The services of an excellent teacher. Miss Abbie Phil-
lips, of California, was secured as General Superintend-
ent of English throughout the Republic, and under her
direction was formed a corps of remarkably competent
Cuban women, who accomplished much in a short time
towards making the study of English in the public schools
more popular than it had been. With the death of Dr.
de Zayas the cause of public instruction seemed again
partially to relapse into its former desuetude. Yet in
spite of the misfortune that thus befell it, the work has
proceeded more satisfactorily than might have been ex-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 371

pected, owing to the strong desire on the part of the youth
of the Republic to learn, and to shake off the fetters that
had previously kept them in a kind of a respectable
ignorance.

During President Menocal's administration the resig-
nation of the Secretary of Public Instruction gave oppor-
tunity for the selection and appointment to that office of
Dr. Dominguez Roldan, who has endeavored to inject new
life into the cause and to place this important branch of
the Government once more in a position that will com-
mand the respect, not only of the people of Cuba, but
also of the outside world. New school houses, designed
expressly for the purpose, are replacing the old and in-
adequate buildings that were formerly rented. The
study of English, that had been discouraged by his prede-
cessor, is being again revived, and many steps in the
cause of learning are being taken whose wisdom will be-
come evident in the near future.

In 1913, when Mario G. Menocal assumed the direc-
tion of the Government of Cuba, there were but 262
schools in the island, while to-day there are 1136, show-
ing an increase of 1074; with 335,291 pupils attending.
No fewer than 1746 teachers have been appointed and
added to the Department of Public Instruction in Cuba.
In addition to this two night schools have recently been
established, one in Santiago de Cuba and one in Bayamo.
Four kindergartens, or "School Gardens," as they are
now termed, have recently been established in the Prov-
ince of Santa Clara.

At the present time, throughout the Republic of Cuba,
there is a total of 5,685 teachers in the primary schools.
Among these are included 116 teachers who render spe-
cial service throughout the different sections of the coun-
try, 19 teachers of night schools, 118 teachers devoted to
school gardens, 40 teachers of cutting and sewing, 26
teachers of English, 21 of Sloyd, and 4 teachers devoted
to instruction in jails. In 1915 a normal school, co-
educational, was established in each of five of the Prov-

372 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

inces. Havana has two normal schools, one for boys
and the other for girls.

During the year 1918 a school of Domestic Economy,
Arts and Sciences, known as the "School of the Home,"
was established. The object of this school, as that of
similar institutions, is to prepare the future wife and
mother so that she may be able to undertake in an intelli-
gent manner the direction of the home. Among the sub-
jects taught are accounting, domestic economy, moral and
civic obligations, hygiene, the care of infants and of the
sick, cutting, sewing, dressmaking, basket-making, and
elementary physics and chemistry, which form the base of
scientific cooking. In addition to these, gardening, the
care of animals, ordinary and higher cooking are taught;
also washing and ironing, dyeing, the removing of stains,
and the proper method of cleaning and taking care of
shoes. In order to make the school popular and to in-
sure its success, a society of patriotic and intelligent
women has been formed, from which much practical
benefit is expected in the future.

In order to provide for and to permit the scientific de-
velopment both physical and mental of the Cuban youth,
the Department of Public Instruction has established a
separate institution, with an experimental annex, for the
purpose of studying the eccentricities and aptitudes of
Cuban children.

The order of sequence of public instruction in Cuba,
as previously stated, has followed very largely that of
the United States. The school gardens are followed by
primary and grammar schools, all suitably graded, and
the course of studies is more or less similar to that of the
United States.

The Institute of Havana, located for many years in
the old convent building just back of the Governor Gen-
eral's Palace, occupies a place between the grammar
school and the University. The course of studies and
scope of this institution is similar to the average high
school of America. New buildings are being erected for

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 373

the accommodation of the several thousand boys and
girls who attend the institute, and with its removal to more
commodious and congenial quarters, this important seat
of learning will be reorganized with greatly increased
efficiency.

The National University of Havana was founded
under the direction of monks of the Dominican Order
on January 5, 1728, and until the installation of the Re-
public occupied the old convent that afterwards served
as the Institute. To-day the University of Havana can
boast of one of the most picturesque and delightful loca-
tions occupied by any seat of learning in the world. It
crowns the northeast corner of the high plateau, over-
looking the capital of the Republic from the west. Its
altitude is several hundred feet above the plain below,
with the Gulf of Mexico close by on the north and old
Morro Castle standing at the entrance of a beautiful
harbor, that stretches out along the far eastern horizon,
sweeping afterwards toward the south. The city of Ha-
vana fills the center of the picture, while in the imme-
diate foreground nestle the forests of the Botanical Gar-
dens and the Quinto de los Molinos, or summer residence
of the former Spanish Governor Generals, with their
beautiful drives sweeping along the front and up to the
crest of the plateau.

The broad stone staircase at the entrance to the grounds
is quite in keeping with the dignity of the place and the
numerous buildings devoted to various departments of
learning are harmonious in design and commodious in
appointment. A giant laurel, with an expanse of shade
that would protect a small army of men, occupied the
center of an old courtyard that once belonged to the forti-
fications commanding the Principe Heights.

To these buildings will soon be added another to be
known as the National School of Languages, at a cost
of $150,000. This edifice, sumptuous in its appoint-
ments, will be dedicated largely to the reciprocal study
of Spanish and English. American students who wish

374 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

to perfect their knowledge of Spanish will be invited from
the various universities of the United States to visit Cuba,
at stated periods of the year, for the purpose of studying
and improving their acquaintance with this language
through direct contact with the students and professors of
the University. The latter, on the other hand, will be
afforded an excellent opportunity to perfect their knowl-
edge of English by mingling with visiting students from
the United States, and it is believed that the result of ac-
quaintances and friendships, formed in this way, many
of which will be sustained through life, will add greatly to
those bonds of friendship and mutual understanding that
resulted from America's assistance to Cuba in her War
for Independence, and that for a thousand reasons should
never be permitted to relapse or sink into indifference.

The national or public library of Cuba, located in the
Maestranza, one of the most substantial of those old
buildings that have come down from the days of Spanish
dominion, was founded during the first American inter-
vention by General Leonard Wood, on October 18, 1901.
It is open to the public every day of the week except
Sunday, from 8 to 1 1 in the morning and from 1 to 5 in
the afternoon, except Saturday, when access may be se-
cured at any time between 8 and 1 2 in the morning.

The library contains at the present time about twenty
thousand volumes. This does not however include a
great mass of pamphlets and unbound manuscripts, docu-
ments, papers, etc., which form a valuable part of the
collection. These volumes are largely in Spanish, French
and English, and include all of the more important
branches of human knowledge. Among them may be
found an excellent collection of the best encyclopedias
and dictionaries of those languages.

Its collection of American History is extensive; in ad-
dition to which may be mentioned a valuable collection of
works on international law, given by the eminent jurist
Dr. Antonio S. de Bustamante, who represented the Re-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 375

public of Cuba at the Peace Conference in Paris at the
conclusion of the Great War.

Among other gifts to the public library may be men-
tioned a series of large, beautiful, artistic drawings in
colors, that represent all that is knouTi of the Aztec and
Toltec life existing in the Republic of Mexico at the time
of the Spanish Conquest in the early part of the 16th
century. These engravings have been drawn and colored
with marvelous care. They are assembled in the form
of an atlas which permits close study and makes one of
the most interesting and valuable contributions of this
kind to be found in any part of the world. They were
presented to Cuba by General Porfirio Diaz, President of
the Republic of Mexico.

Arrangements have been made to catalogue the volumes
of the library. For this purpose experts have been se-
cured and the space amplified, and when this work is
completed, while the library will not offer the luxurious
quarters of institutions of its kind in other countries, it
will be useful and accessible to those who wish to avail
themselves of its services.

CHAPTER XXXV
OCEAN TRANSPORTATION

Transportation is the handmaid of production.
Where transportation facilities are faulty, exchange of
commodities is necessarily restricted to local demands,
and commerce with the outside world is practically im-
possible. Good harbors are among the first essentials to
foreign trade, and with deep, well protected bays, Cuba
has been bountifully supplied. Every sheltered inden-
tation of her two thousand miles of coast line, from the
days of Colon, has been an invitation for passing ships
to enter. The wealth of the island in agriculture and
mineral and forest products, has made the visits of these
ocean carriers profitable ; hence the phenomenal growth of
Cuba's foreign commerce.

In spite of the stupid restriction of trade enforced by
Spain in the early colonial days, contraband commerce
assumed large proportions during the 17th century, and
when England's fleet captured Havana in 1763, the capi-
tal of Cuba enjoyed a freedom of foreign exchange never
before known. Quantities of sugar, coffee, hides and
hardwoods, large for those times, demanded transporta-
tion during the second quarter of the 19th century. For-
eign trade, too, was greatly stimulated in Cuba by con-
ditions resulting from the Civil War in the United States.
The rapid development of the sugar industry following
this war soon called for more permanent lines of ocean
transportation.

The interdependence of produce and transportation is
well illustrated in the early history of what is now known
as the United Fruit Company. In 1870, Captain
Lorenzo D. Baker was in command of a small, swift
coasting schooner en route from Jamaica to Boston. On

376

.U1

hi

.;off

THE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, HAVANA

The Chamber of Commerce is one of the oldest civic organiza-
tions in Cuba, which even under the repressive and discouraging
rule of Spanish Governors did much for the material progress of the
Island. Under the Republic its activities and achievements have
of course been immensely increased, and it is now appropriately
housed in one of the finest public buildings of the capital. A
certain resemblance to the famous Cooper Union building in New
York has often been remarked, though the Havana edifice is the
more ornate and attractive of the two.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 377

the wharf at Kingston lay some 40 bunches of bananas, a
few of which were ripe, others lacking 10 days or more
in which to change their dull green coats into the soft
creamy yellow of the matured fruit. Captain Baker was
fond of bananas, and ordered that the lot be placed on
board his schooner, just before sailing. Fortune favored
him and strong easterly beam winds brought him into
the harbor of Boston in 10 days, with all of the bunches
not consumed en route in practically perfect condition.
Many friends of Capt. Baker, to whom this delicious fruit
was practically unknown, got a taste of the banana for
the first time. Among these was Andrew W. Preston, a
local fruit dealer in Boston, who was greatly impressed
with the appearance of the fruit, and the success which
had attended Captain Baker's effort to get the bananas
into the market without injury.

Mr. Preston reckoned that if a schooner with a fair
wind could land such delicious fruit in Boston in ten
days, steamers could do the same work with absolute cer-
tainty in less time. This far sighted pioneer and pro-
moter of trade realized that three factors were essential
to building up an industry of this kind. First, there must
be a market for the product, and he was confident that
the people of Boston and the vicinity could soon be edu-
cated to like the banana and to purchase it if offered at a
fair price. Next, a sufficient and steady supply must be
provided. Third, reliable transportation in the form of
steamers of convenient size and suitable equipment must
be secured, in order to convey the fruit with economy and
regularity to the waiting market or point of consumption.
True, he at first failed to interest other fruit dealers in
the project. "It had never been done and consequently
was a dangerous innovation that would probably prove
unprofitable." But Mr. Preston had visualized a new
industry on a large scale, and with the faith of the indus-
trial pioneer he finally succeeded in persuading nine of
his friends to put up with him each $2,000, and to form a
company for the purpose of growing bananas in the West

378 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

Indies, of chartering a steamer suitable for the transpor-
tation, and finding a market for the produce in Boston.

The details were worked out carefully and the first
cargo purchased in Jamaica and landed in New England
proved a decided success. During the first two or three
years the accruing dividends were invested in fruit lands
in Jamaica and everything went well. Not long after,
however, it was found that a West Indian cyclone could
destroy a banana field and put it out of business in a very
few hours. More than one field or locality in which to
grow bananas on a large scale was necessary to provide
against the possible failure of the crop at some other
point.

In the meantime another broad minded and determined
pioneer in the world of progress, Minor C. Keith, a youth
of 23, was trying to build a railroad some 90 miles in
length from Puerto Limon to the capital, San Jose, in
the highlands of Costa Rica. The greater part of this
road was through dense jungle and forest almost im-
penetrable, with nothing in the shape of freight or pas-
sengers from which revenues could be derived until the
road was completed to the capital. Mr. Keith had a
concession from the Costa Rican Government, but the
Government had no funds with which to aid the builder
in his enterprise, and this young engineer, through force
of character and moral suasion, kept his two thousand
workmen in line without one dollar of money for over 18
months. Food he managed to scrape up from various
sources, but the payday was practically forgotten. In
the meantime, some banana plants were secured from
a plantation in Colombia, and set out on the virgin soils
along the roadway through which Mr. Keith was laying
his rails. These grew marvellously, and not only sup-
plied fruit for the Jamaica negroes engaged in the work,
but soon furnished bananas for export to New Orleans,
and thus was started a rival industry to that of Mr.
Preston, on the shores of the Western Caribbean.

It was not long before Mr. Keith, who struggled for

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 379

20 years to complete his line from the coast to the capital
of Costa Rica, came into contact with Mr. Preston.
These captains of industry realized the advantages of co-
operation, and in a very short time organized the United
Fruit Company, which is probably the greatest agricul-
tural transportation company in the world to-day. Its
various plantations include lands in Colombia, Panama,
Costa Rica, Honduras, Guatemala and Jamaica. Large
plantations of bananas belonging to the company were
until recently on the harbors of Banes and Nipe, on the
north coast of Oriente, in the Island of Cuba, but these
were subjected to strong breezes from the northeast that
whipped the leaves and hindered their growth. Then
too, it was soon discovered that these lands were better
adapted to the cultivation of sugar cane, hence bananas
of the United Fruit Company disappeared from the Nipe
Bay district, to be replaced by sugar plantations that to-
day cover approximately 37,000 acres and in 1920 will
reach 50,000 acres. Over 200,000 acres on the coast
of the Caribbean are devoted to the cultivation of ba-
nanas. About 30,000 head of cattle are maintained as a
source of food for the thousands of laborers, mostly Ja-
maicans, who are employed in the fields of the United
Fruit Company, which comprise an aggregate of 1,980,-
000 acres; while 743 miles of standard gauge railway,
together with 532 miles of narrow gauge roads, are o\\Tied
and operated throughout the various plantations.

In the year 1915, 46,000,000 bunches of bananas were
shipped by the United Fruit Company from the shores of
the Caribbean to the United States, while the sugar plan-
tations owned by the Company on the north coast of
Oriente Province, in Cuba, produced sugar in 1918 that
yielded a net return of $5,000,000.

In order to provide transportation for this enormous
agricultural output this company to-day owns and oper-
ates one of the biggest fleets of steamships in the world.
Forty-five of these ships, with tonnages varying from
3,000 to 8,000, especially equipped for the banana trade,

380 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

and with the best of accommodations for passengers, have
an aggregate tonnage of 250,000; while 49 other steamers
were chartered by the company before the war, making
the total tonnage employed in the carrying trade approxi-
mately half a million.

Nearly all these steamers, which connect the coast of
the Caribbean with New York, Boston and New Orleans,
touch, both coming and going, at the City of Havana,
thus giving that port the advantage of unexcelled trans-
portation facilities, and connecting Cuba not only with
the more important cities of the Gulf of Mexico, New
York and New England, but also with Jamaica, Carib-
bean ports, and the South American Republics lying be-
yond the Isthmus of Panama, along the western shores
of that continent.

No steamship line perhaps has been more closely re-
lated to the commercial development of Cuba than has
the New York & Cuba Mail Steamship Company. This
line had its origin in a carrying trade between Cuba and
the United States started by the firm of James E. Ward
& Co. The members of the firm were Mr. James E.
Ward, Mr. Henry B. Booth and Mr. Wm. T. Hughes.
The Company was incorporated under the laws of the
State of New York and formally organized in July, 1881,
with Mr. Ward as President, Mr. Booth as Vice Presi-
dent and Mr. Hughes as Secretary and Treasurer.
When first organized the Company had only four ships,
the Newport, Saratoga, Niagara and Santiago, with a
gross tonnage of 10,179. Between the date of its organ-
ization and its transfer to the Maine Corporation, or
during a period of 26 years, the company acquired 19
vessels, with a total gross tonnage of 84,411. In addi-
tion to the above the company has operated under foreign
flags eight other ships aggregating a tonnage of 26,624.

The four original steamers mentioned above were
owned in part by the builders, Messrs. John Roach Sz
Son, and a few other individuals. The original firm

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 381

however sold its ships to the Company at the time of its
reorganization. Of the vessels acquired by the com-
pany, the majority were built under contract by Messrs.
Roach & Son, and Wm. Cramp & Sons' Ship and Engine
Building Company. Among the ships that were pur-
chased and not built especially for this company, were
the two sister ships Seguranca and Vigilancia, built in
1890 for the Brazil Line. The steamships City of Wash-
ington and City of Alexandria were originally owned by
the Alexandria Line, and passed into the hands of the
Ward Line after its organization. The Matanzas, for-
merly the Spanish steamer Guido, that had left London
with a valuable cargo of food, munitions and money with
which to pay off Spanish troops in Cuba, was captured by
the American forces during the early part of the war with
Spain, in an attempt to run the blockade that had been
established, and was afterwards sold by the American
Government to the Ward Line.

The business of this company, after its organization,
began with a passenger and freight service connecting the
cities of Havana, Santiago and Cienfuegos with New
York. With the acquisition of the Alexandria Line, the
service of the company was extended to Mexico, and a
number of ports have been added to its itinerary both in
Cuba and in Mexico. The line to-day maintains a serv-
ice on each of the following routes : New York to Havana
and return; New York to Havana, Progreso, Yucatan,
and Vera Cruz, returning via Progreso and Havana to
New York; New York to Tampico, Mexico, calling oc-
casionally on return voyages at other ports when cargoes
are offered; New York to Guantanamo, Santiago, Man-
zanillo and Cienfuegos, returning according to the de-
mands of shipping interests ; New York to Nassau, in the
Bahamas, Havana, and return. The sailings average
about five a week and schedules are prepared from time
to time to meet the requirements of trade. Passengers
on this line are carried in three distinct classes, first cabin,

382 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

intermediate, and steerage, the vessels being constructed
with reference to suitable accommodations for the various
classes.

The principal railway and other connections are as
follows: At New York in general with all railroads
terminating at that port, as well as all foreign and do-
mestic water lines that move traffic via that port; at
Havana with the United Railways of Havana and the
Cuba Railroad; at Tampico with the Mexican Central
Railway for interior points in Mexico; at Progreso with
the United Railways of Yucatan for Merida, Campeche
and other interior points ; at Vera Cruz with the National
Railways of Mexico and the Interoceanic Railroad for
interior points of Mexico, as well as with the Vera Cruz
and Pacific Railroad for interior points of Mexico and the
Pacific Coast; at Puerto Mexico with the Tehuantepec
National Railway, for points on the Isthmus of Tehuan-
tepec and on the Pacific Coast. Connection is also made
at Vera Cruz with the Compania Mexicana de Navegacion
for traffic to Tuxpam, Coatzacoalcos, Tlacotalpam and
Frontera, ports on the Gulf of Mexico. At Santiago con-
nection is made with the Cuba Eastern Railway and Cuba
Railroad for points throughout the interior of Cuba; at
Guantanamo with the Cuba Eastern Railway and at Cien-
fuegos with the Cuban Central Railroad.

The company has contracts with the United States
Government for the transportation of mails between New
York and Havana, and between New York, Havana and
Mexico. It also has a contract with the Bahamas Gov-
ernment for the transportation of mails.

The following is a list of the vessels owned or operated
by the company.

Steamers :

Havana Matanzas

Saratoga Antilla

Mexico Camaguey

Mono Castle Santiago

Esperanza Bayamo

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 383

Monterey Manzanillo

Segurancia Yumuri

Vigilancia Guantanamo
Seneca

Tugs and Steam Lighters:

Colonia Auxiliar

Nautilus Comport

Neptuno Edwin Brandon

Hercules

The total gross tonnage of the steamers and tugs above
mentioned is 84,000 tons.

One of the oldest and most important lines in the carry-
ing trade of the Caribbean is known as the Munson
Steamship Line, and was founded in 1872 by Walter D.
Munson. The trade began with sailing vessels but the
increase in traffic was so great that these were soon re-
placed with steamers. The steamships in the service of
the ^lunson Line to-day number 140, with an average
tonnage of 2,500 tons each, dead weight.

These vessels sail from nearly every port in Cuba, con-
necting the Island with nearly all of the Atlantic and
Gulf Coast ports of the United States. The passenger
steamers of the Munson Line ply between New York,
Nuevitas and Nipe Bay of the Province of Oriente. The
passenger steamers, although not touching at Havana, are
equipped for the accommodation of passengers that leave
from the ports of the eastern provinces of the Island.

During the late European War twelve of the Munson
steamships were placed in the service of the United States
and three under the British flag.

The Peninsular and Occidental Steamship Company
operates a daily passenger, mail and freight service be-
tween Havana and Key West, Florida. Since 1912 this
company has maintained practically a daily service be-
tween the two ports and maintains also a bi-weekly service
between Havana and Port Tampa, Florida. Owing to
the frequency of the sailings, the P. & O. SS. Co. is con-

384 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

sidered the official mail route between the United States
and Cuba.

The company operates also the Florida East Coast
Car-Ferry freight service between Havana and Key West.
This service was made possible by the extension of the
Florida East Coast Railroad from the southern points of
the peninsula out over the long line of keys that terminates
in the Island of Key West.

The erection of this viaduct, built at an enormous ex-
pense, of stone and concrete, was the realization of Henry
W. Flagler's dream of modem transportation facilities
between the United States and Cuba. The car ferry serv-
ice was inaugurated in January, 1915. At the present
time two of these great car ferryboats, with a capacity of
28 standard freight cars each, make a round trip every
twenty-four hours between the two ports. These two ves-
sels transport approximately 1,150 cars in and out of
Cuba every month, carrying over 35,000 tons each way
in that length of time.

Since the inauguration of the service more business
has been offered than can be handled during certain
months of the year, and it has been found necessary to
refuse large quantities of cargo destined for the Republic
of Cuba. The advantage of this service to the Cuban
fruit and vegetable growers has been very great, since
they are enabled to load in the Cuban fields freight cars
belonging to almost every line in the United States, so
that this produce may be shipped direct, without breaking
bulk, to any market in the United States.

In the year 1870 the Pinillos Izquierdo Line of steam-
ers was established between Spain and the Island of Cuba.
The home office of this line is in Cadiz, Spain. Their
vessels are engaged in freight and passenger service
touching at the following points in the Peninsula: Bar-
celona, Palma de Majorca, Valencia, Alicante, Malaga,
Cadiz, Vigo, Gijon and Santander.

En route the Canary Island and Porto Rico are also
visited while the terminal points on this side of the At-

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 385

lantic are New Orleans, Galveston, Havana and Santiago
de Cuba. All of their steamers carry mail. Their fleet
consists of nine steamers with a combined tonnage of 78,-
000 tons as follows:

Infanta Isabel 16,500 tons 2000 passengers

Cadiz 10,500 tons 1500 passengers

Barcelona 10,500 tons 1500 passengers

Valbanera 10,500 tons 1500 passengers

Catalina 8,000 tons 1000 passengers

Martin Saena 5,500 tons 800 passengers

Balmes 6,500 tons 800 passengers

Conde Wifredo 5,500 tons 800 passengers

Miguel M. Pinillos 4,500 tons 500 passengers

78,000 tons

The Southern Pacific, originally known as the Morgan
line, established a transportation service between Gulf
ports and the Island of Cuba many years ago, beginning
with two side-wheel walking-beam steamboats of about
800 tons dead weight. They were heavy consumers of
coal and had a speed of from 9}^ to 11 knots. A few
years later the steamers Hutchinson and Arkansas, both
side wheelers, were added to the fleet. Still later the
single propeller steamers Excelsior and Chalmette, of
about 2,400 tons each, were placed in the service of the
Southern Pacific Line. These combined freight and
passenger boats were well built and seaworthy fourteen
knot steamers, of an equipment considered modern at
that time. The Louisiana entered the service in 1900,
but owing to an error in loading freight, it turned turtle
at the docks in New Orleans and became a total loss.
The Excelsior and Chalmette are still maintaining an
efficient weekly service between New Orleans and Ha-
vana.

The Compagnie General Transatl antique, generally
known as the French Line, connecting western France,
Northern Spain and the Canary Islands, w^ith Cuba,
Porto Rico, Vera Cruz, Mexico, and the city of New
Orleans, was established in 1860.

St. Nazaire on the Bay of Biscay in France is the head-

386 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

quarters of this line. Their steamers touch at Santander
and Coruna on the north coast of Spain; at the Canary
Islands, Porto Rico, Martinique, Santiago de Cuba, Ha-
vana, Vera Cruz, and New Orleans. Their fleet consists
of 13 ships with a combined tonnage of 153,500 tons.

The steamship Lafayette, of 15,000 tons, is equipped
for the accommodation of 1,620 passengers. The Es-
pana, of 15,000 tons, carries 1,500 passengers; the Flan-
ders, of 12,000 tons, carries 1,250 passengers; the
Venizia, of 12,000 tons, carries 700 passengers; the
Navarre, of 10,000 tons, carries 1,000 passengers; the
Venezuela, of 7,000 tons, carries 500 passengers.

The Caroline, the Mississippi and the Georgie are each
steamers of 13,000 tons. The Honduras is a 12,000 ton
ship; the Hudson 11,000 tons; the Calif ornie 10,500
tons, and the Virginie 10,000 tons. The seven last men-
tioned vessels carry cargo only.

During August, 1919, the 7,000 ton steamer Panama
Canal arrived in Cuba from Japan, inaugurating a new
steamship line between Japan and the United States,
touching at Cuban ports. The line is known as the
Osaka Shosen Kaisha, of Osaka, Japan. The fleet con-
sists of 186 steamers plying between Japan and different
parts of the world. The headquarters for this company
has been established at Chicago, Illinois, owing to con-
nections that have been made with the Chicago, Mil-
waukee and St. Paul Railroad.

Steamers eastward bound from Japan will bring rice
and general cargo, most of which will be consigned to the
Island of Cuba, owing to the heavy consumption of that
article of food in that Republic. New Orleans will be
the terminus in the United States of the line. On the
initial trip of the Panama Canal 50,000 sacks of rice
grown in Japan were consigned to Cuban merchants in
Santiago de Cuba and Cienfuegos. The return cargoes
will be composed largely of cotton, taken aboard at New
Orleans, and with sugar and tobacco shipped from Cuba
to the Orient. This line has begun with one sailing each

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 387

way per month, all steamers touching at Havana for
freight and passengers.

The Customs regulations of Cuba require five sets of
invoices for Havana and four for all other points ; which
must be written in ink, in either English or Spanish. H
they are typewritten the original imprint must be in-
cluded, but the others may be carbon copies. Invoices
must give the names of shippers and consignees, and of
vessels ; marks and numbers, description of merchandise,
gross and net weights by metric system, price, value, and
statement of expenses incurred. If there are no expenses,
that fact must be stated. Prices must be detailed, on each
article, and not in bulk. Descriptions of merchandise
must be detailed, telling the materials of each article and
of all its parts. Descriptions of fabrics must tell the
nature of the fibre, character of weave, dye, number of
threads in six square millimeters, length and width of
piece, weight, price, and value. All measurements must
be in metric units.

At the foot of each sheet of the invoice must be a signed
declaration, in Spanish, telling whether the articles are
or are not products of the soil or industry of the United
States. If the manufacturer or shipper is not a resident
of the place where the consulate is situated, he must ap-
point in writing a local agent to present the invoice and
the agent must write and sign a declaration concerning his
appointment. States forms are prescribed and are fur-
nished by consuls for manufacturers, producers, owners,
sellers and shippers.

Freight charges to the shipping port, custom house and
statistical fees, stamps, wharfage and incidental expenses
must be included in the dutiable value of goods, and must
be stated separately; but insurance and consular fees
must not be included.

Each invoice must cover a single, distinct shipment,
by one vessel to one consignee. Separate consignments
must not be included in one invoice. Invoices under $5,
covering products of the soil or industry of the United

388 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

States must be certified in order to enjoy the provisions
of the reciprocity treaty between the two countries. In-
voices and declarations must be written on only one side
of the paper, and no erasures, corrections, alterations or
additions must be made, unless stated in a signed declara-
tion.

Domestic and foreign merchandise from the United
States must be separately invoiced. Invoices are not re-
quired on shipments of foreign goods of less value
than $5.

Fabrics of mixed fibres must be so stated, with a state-
ment of the proportion of the principal material, upon
which the duty is to be computed. Cotton goods pay
duty according to threads, and silk and wool ad valorem.
Samples of cotton goods are taken at the custom house,
and should be provided for that purpose to avoid mu-
tilation of the piece. Duties on ready made clothing are
based on the chief outside fabric. A surtax of 100% is
placed on ready-made cotton clothing, and a surtax of
30% on colored threads.

Two copies of each set of bills of lading must be given,
but on merchandise of less than $5 value need not be
certified.

Invoices covering shipments of automobile vehicles
must state maker, name of car, style of car, year of make,
maker's number on motor, number of cylinders, horse
power, and passenger capacity.

If after an invoice has been certified it or any part of
it is delayed in shipment, the steamship company must
mark on the bill of lading opposite the delayed goods
"Short Shipped," but the invoice need not be recertified.
The consignee should, however, be informed.

The list of articles admitted into Cuba free of duty
comprises samples of fabrics, felt, and wall paper, of a
prescribed size, samples of lace and trimmings, and sam-
ples of hosiery, provided that they are rendered unfit for
any other purpose than that of samples ; trained animals,
animals, portable theatres, and other articles for public

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 389

entertainment, not to remain in Cuba longer than three
months; receptacles in which fruits or liquids were ex-
ported from Cuba and which are being returned empty;
furniture, clothing and other personal property of immi-
grants, or of travellers, showing evidence of having al-
ready been used; agricultural implements not including
machinery; and pictures, posters, catalogues, calendars,
etc., not for sale but for free distribution for advertising
purposes.

The importation into Cuba is forbidden or restricted
of foreign coins of anything but gold, save those of the
United States ; gunpowder, dynamite and other explosives,
save by special permit of the Interior Department; and
silencers for firearms. Arms of more than .32 caliber,
.44 caliber revolvers, and automatic pistols require spe-
cial permit.

Consular fees for certification are: On shipments
worth less than $5, nothing; from $5 upward and less
than $50, fifty cents; from $50 upward and less than
$200, $2; over $200, $2 plus ten cents for each $100
or fraction thereof. Extra copies of invoices, 50 cents
each. Invoice blanks, ten cents a set. Certifying bills
of lading, $1.

Cuban consulates are situated in the United States and
its possessions as follows: Atlanta, Ga.; Baltimore,
Md.; Boston, Mass.; Brunswick, Ga. ; Chattanooga,
Tenn. ; Chicago, 111. ; Cincinnati, Ohio. ; Detroit, Mich, ;
Fernandina, Fla.; Galveston, Tex.; Gulfport, Miss.;
Jacksonville, Fla.; Kansas City, Mo.; Key West, Fla.;
Los x\ngeles, Cal.; Louisville, Ky. ; Mobile, Ala.; New
Orleans, La.; New York; Newport News, Va. ; Norfolk,
Va.; Pascagoula, Miss.; Pensacola, Fla.; Philadelphia,
Penn. ; San Francisco, Cal.; Savannah, Ga.; St. Louis,
Mo.; Tampa, Fla.; Washington, D. C; and Aguadilla,
Arecibo, Mayagues, Ponce, and San Juan, Porto Rico.

CHAPTER XXXVI
AMERICAN COLONIES IN CUBA

American soldiers returning to the United States at
the conclusion of her little war with Spain, in the summer
of 1898, brought wonderful stories of Cuba, with glowing
accounts of her climate, her rainfall, her rich soil and
natural advantages. Schemes for the colonization of the
Island were immediately formed and some of them put
into effect during the early days of the Government of
Intervention.

Unfortunately, most of these enterprises originated
with speculators, and so-called land-sharks, who sought
only to secure large tracts of territory, at the smallest pos-
sible cost, and with the assistance of attractive literature
place them on the market in the United States, at prices
which would enable them, even when sold on the install-
ment plan to make a thousand percent or more profit on
the capital invested.

This method of settling up the country would not have
been so objectionable had the promoters of the schemes
taken the pains to locate their colonies in those sections
of the Island where transportation facilities, if not imme-
diately available, could at least be reasonably sure in the
near future.

Up to the present, a logical, common sense plan in the
colonization in this Island has in no instance been carried
out. On the contrary, every American colony that has
yet been established in Cuba, and her adjacent Islands,
has been located with disregard to the first essentials of
success. These hapless experiments have met with a
fate that was inevitable and in most instances can be
described with one word "Failure."

390

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 391

The first American Colony in Cuba was started on
Broadway, New York City, by a land speculator, who,
through correspondence, learned of a large property that
could be had in Cuba with a small cash payment, at what
seemed to be a ridiculously low price; in other words at
about 80 cents an acre. An option was secured on sev-
eral thousand acres, the larger part of which, perhaps,
was available for general agricultural purposes. But
the location with reference to transportation facilities was
one of the most unfortunate that could have been selected.
This colony was called La Gloria, and while La Gloria
has not been a failure, nothing in the world has saved it
but the pluck, and persistent and intelligent effort of a
courageous and most commendable community of Ameri-
cans.

Some 800 of these, not knowing where they were going,
other than that it was somewhere in Cuba, were dumped
by a chartered steamer in the harbor of Nuevitas, 40
miles from their destination. This they afterwards
reached with the aid of light draft schooners, or shallow,
flat-bottom boats, pushed through a muddy ditch some
three or four miles, and as many more over sand shoals,
where the passengers were compelled to get out and wade.
Worse than all, when finally landed on the south shore
of Guajaba Bay, they were obliged to wade through a
swamp for another five miles, in mud knee-deep, or more,
in order to reach the high ground on which they were to
make their future homes in a foreign land.

Many of these colonists, disappointed and deceived,
failed to stand the strain, and those who had the neces-
sary funds, or could borrow, returned disgusted to their
homes in the United States. Others, after studying the
soil and noting the splendid growth of forest and vegeta-
tion, lulled into resignation by soft, cool breezes from the
Atlantic Ocean, and the bright sunshine that seldom
missed a day, made up their minds to stick to the game
and to see it out, which they did.

Their efforts in the end were crowned with a certain

392 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

degree of success, and the near future holds out to them
the promise of fairly satisfactory transportation for their
fruit, vegetables and other products, to profitable markets,
both in Cuba and the United States.

The colony of La Gloria in the fall of 1918 contained
about 75 families and comprised, all told, probably 500
people. This estimate includes the little nearby settle-
ments of Guanaja, Punta Pelota, Columbia, Canasi, The
Garden, and other little suburbs or groups of families,
scattered throughout the district.

With the Cubans, the people of La Gloria have always
maintained the most friendly relations, while mutual es-
teem and respect is the rule of the district. The Mayor
of La Gloria, a Cuban, was elected by popular vote, and
is highly esteemed in the community as a man who has
been always an enthusiastic and efficient supporter of the
interests of the colony. Seventy per cent of the popula-
tion is American. La Gloria has always been fortunate
in having a good school in which both Spanish and Eng-
lish are taught.

The town itself is located on the northern edge of the
plateau, or rise of ground overlooking the savanna that
separates it from the bay. A fairly good road some five
miles in length, built at Government expense, connects
the town with the wharf, whence, up to the winter of
1918, all produce was sent for shipment to the harbor of
Nuevitas some forty miles east by launch.

The streets are very wide, shaded with beautiful flower-
ing flamboyans, and the houses, many of them two stories
in height, are built of native woods, cedar, mahogany,
etc., products of the saw mills of the neighborhood.
These, as a rule, are kept painted, and the general ap-
pearance of the town, although not bustling with busi-
ness, is one of comfort, cleanliness and thrift.

It is not an exaggeration to state that there is no little
town in conservative New England where less of waste,
or disfiguring material, even in back yards, or rear of
houses, can be found, than in the little town of La Gloria.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 393

The furnishing of most of the houses consists of a strange
mingling of articles of comfort brought from home, com-
bined with other things that have been improvised and
dug out of their tropical surroundings.

A mistake, made in the early days of La Gloria, and
one common to every American colony in the West In-
dies, has been the exclusive dedication of energy, effort
and capital to the grovvth of citrus fruit. The first es-
sential factor to the success of a colony in any climate is
food, and forage for animals. This, in nearly every
American town in Cuba, has been ignored, every effort
being expended on the planting and promotion of a citrus
grove from which no yield could be expected inside of
five or six years, and during which time, many a well
meaning farmer has become discouraged or has exhausted
his capital, leaving his grove in the end to be choked up
with weeds and ruined by the various enemies of the citrus
family. However, the people of La Gloria planted and
stuck to their orange trees and many of these, today, are
yielding very satisfactory returns, in spite of the serious
lack of transportation.

The best land belonging to the colony is located in the
district known as Canasi, some three miles south of the
town, in the direction of the Cubitas Mountains. There
are 600 acres in this section devoted to oranges and grape
fruit, all of which have been well cared for and are in-
creasing in value each year.

The citizens of the colony have joined forces and built
a well equipped packing plant, 100 feet in length by 30
feet in width, from which, last year, were shipped 432,000
loose oranges, and 9,200 boxes of grape fruit, the latter
going to the United States by the way of Nuevitas. All
of this fruit at the present time is hauled by wagon, some
eight or nine miles to the wharf, on the bay, whence it is
conveyed to the harbor of Nuevitas for sale and shipment.

La Gloria's hope of really satisfactory transportation
facilities is vested in the North Shore Railroad of Cuba,
and her dream of suitable connections with the outside

394 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

world of trade will soon be realized. La Gloria has many
things to commend it, aside from soil and climate. One
of these is excellent drinking water, found at an average
depth of twenty feet. The soil on which the town is
built is largely impregnated with iron ore, which forms a
splendid roadbed, and enables the population to escape
the seas of mud that are rather common throughout the
interior, excepting along macadamized roads.

Most vegetables, with the exception of potatoes, may
be grown throughout the entire year in La Gloria, and a
variety of potato adapted to that peculiar soil will prob-
ably be found in the near future. A serious mistake com-
mon not only in La Gloria but in nearly all other colonies
in Cuba has been neglect in sowing forage plants and
thus providing for live stock, so essential to the success of
any farming district.

That which is most to be admired in La Gloria, is the
class of people who form the backbone of the colony, and
who certainly came from excellent stock, proved by their
successful efforts in overcoming difficulties that would
have discouraged a less persevering community. The
colony supports a weekly newspaper, and holds annual
agricultural fairs that are a credit to the district.

The second and most serious experiment in colonization
in Cuba was staged in the Isle of Pines. In the year
1900 this intrepid storm sentinel of the Caribbean offered
several advantages for a successful exploitation of the
American public. In spite of the fact that this Island
had always formed an integral part of Cuba, it was ad-
vertised throughout the United States as American prop-
erty, and the flag raised by the Government of Interven-
tion was pointed to as a permanent asset of that particular
section.

Again the promoters of this pretentious colonization
scheme absolutely ignored the basic principles of success
in colony work. In other words they did not take into
account that not only was the Isle of Pines devoid of a
first-class harbor, but that the chances of securing direct

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 395

transportation between that section and the United States
was decidedly remote.

Through the hypnotic influence of beautifully worded
advertisements and attractive pictures, large numbers of
settlers from the United States and Canada, especially
from Minnesota and the Dakotas, were tempted to locate
in the Isle of Pines, or to purchase property, usually on
the installment plant, which they had never seen, and for
which they paid exorbitant prices.

Tracts that cost from 90(^ to $1.20 per acre, were di-
vided into 10, 20 and 40 acre farms, and sold at prices
ranging from $25 in the beginning up to $75 and even
$100 per acre in 1918. These prices have always been
out of proportion to the quality of the soil, and the loca-
tion of the land, since lands far more fertile, and within
easy reach of steamers leaving Havana daily, might have
been found on the mainland of Cuba, that would give the
prospect of a fair chance of success in almost any agri-
cultural undertaking.

Here again the prospective settler was advised to start
citrus fruit groves, to the exclusion of forage and other
crops from which immediate returns would have en-
couraged the farmer, and permitted him to live economi-
cally while making up his mind as to the advisability of
citrus fruit culture, which is a specialized form of horti-
culture, requiring much technical knowledge, and a great
deal of experience to insure satisfactory results.

In the Isle of Pines, as in La Gloria, while many men
have been disappointed, and many families have left the
country in despair, there still remains a nucleus of hard
working, intelligent and enterprising men who, in spite
of the disadvantages that will surround them, have made
for themselves comfortable homes, and who enjoy the
quiet, dreamy life that soon becomes essential to the man
who remains long in the tropics.

The Isle of Pines ships a considerable amount of fruit
and vegetables each year, through Havana, to markets in
the United States. How often the balance may be found

396 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

on the profit side of the ledger, however, is open to ques-
tion. The Isle of Pines undoubtedly offers an excellent
retreat for those who have become tired of the strenuous
life of cities, and who prefer to pass the remainder
of their days in pleasant, healthful surroundings. To
do this, of course, requires an income that will insure
them against any little petty annoyance that might come
from a disturbing cyclone, or a low price for grape fruit
in northern markets.

The enterprising promoters connected with the early
colonization of the Isle of Pines made a second experi-
ment at Herradura, in the Province of Pinar del Rio, 90
miles from the city of Havana by rail. Here they pur-
chased some 22,000 acres of land in 1902, paying, it is
said, an average price of a dollar an acre, and started the
third American colony in Cuba under the name of
Herradura.

In the colonization work, the old La Gloria and Isle
of Pines method of advertising was faithfully followed,
and with results eminently satisfactory to the promoters,
most of whom have acquired comfortable fortunes, at the
expense of Americans and Canadians in the United States
who were anxious to find homes where they could enjoy
life and perhaps prosper in the Tropics.

The larger part of the Herradura tract, especially that
which lay along the Western Railroad, was a light sandy
soil, used by the natives in the olden days for grazing
cattle, and burned over every winter, thus destroying
nearly all of the humus in the land. This property was
divided into 40-acre tracts and sold at $20 per acre. As
soon as the settlers from the United States began to arrive
in any numbers, the price was advanced to $40. Citrus
fruit was held out to prospective home seekers as the surest
means of securing an easy life and a fortune after the
first four or five years.

Under favorable conditions, where all the essential ele-
ments to success are combined, this is possible. But
Herradura did not combine all of the required features,

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 397

hence hundreds of acres of abandoned groves can be seen
along the railroad track for miles, as one enters the
Herradura district. The cyclone of 1917 which added
the last straw to the proverbial camel's back, in the Isle
of Pines, swept across the western end of Pinar del Rio
Province also, and only those groves that had been pro-
vided with wind-breaks escaped from blight and ruin in
the hurricane.

Today there are about 25 families, with perhaps 100
inhabitants, remaining in the colony of Herradura.
Some of these settlers, men of experience, who came from
the citrus grove districts of Florida, and others who took
up general farming on the better lands, some two or three
miles north of the railroad, have succeeded, and have
built for themselves comfortable homes where rural life
is enjoyed to the utmost.

Some of them have their machines with which they can
motor over a splendid automobile drive to Havana, and
spend a few days in the capital, during the opera season.
Nearly all of them have a few saddle horses that furnish
splendid exercise and amusement for the younger mem-
bers of the colony. One of the successful old timers of
Herradura is Mr. Earle, formerly chief of the Govern-
ment Experimental Station at Santiago de Las Vegas, a
scientific farmer and a good business man. Mr. Earle
located on good land in a little valley well back from
the road, planted 40 acres in citrus fruit and has suc-
ceeded where others failed.

On all lands where irrigation is possible, the growing
of vegetables, especially peppers and egg plants, has
proven very satisfactory. The average number of crates
per acre is 350, and a dollar per crate net is the estimated
average profit. The irrigation comes either from wells
or little streams.

The raising of pigs and poultry has helped greatly all
those farmers of Herradura who had the foresight not to
neglect the live stock and poultry end in their farming
enterprises.

398 THE HISTORY OF CUBA

The price of fairly good land in Herradura today is
from $25 to $50 per acre. The successful owner of a
well cared for citrus grove in this colony values it at
$1,500 per acre. The freight on fruit and vegetables
from Herradura to the city of Havana over the Western
Road, is ten cents per box.

The colony boasts of a very comfortable school house,
which also serves as a church and town hall. The old
standbys, as they call themselves, seldom complain of
their lot, and could hardly be induced to change or seek
homes in other localities.

There are some half dozen American and Canadian
colonies in the Province of Oriente, most of them scat-
tered along the line of the Cuba Company's railroad that
has brought the interior of that province into contact with
the seaports of Antilla, on the north coast, and Santiago
de Cuba on the south. The colony of Bartle is the west-
ernmost, located about fifty miles from the borderline
between that province and Oriente.

The Bartle tract consisted originally of 5,000 acres,
3,000 of which lie north of the railroad and the remainder
extending toward the south. Most of the land is cov-
ered with a heavy forest of hard woods and the work of
clearing is a serious proposition, although the soil, once
freed from stumps, is exceptionally rich and productive.
Less than 2,000 acres have been cleared up to the pres-
ent, and some three or four hundred have been planted in
citrus fruit. Good water is found at a depth of 25 feet.

There are approximately 200 permanent residents in
this little settlement, which has been laid out to advan-
tage with its Plantation House, hotel, church, stores, etc.,
and a very neat railway station. The buildings are
nearly all frame, painted white with green trimmings. In
Bartle, as in all colonial settlements in Cuba up to the
present, the planting of citrus fruit seems to have been the
aim and ambition of the settlers, who are about evenly
divided between Canadians and Americans.

THE HISTORY OF CUBA 399

Just south of Bartle are a number of small estates on
land that belonged to the late Sir Wm. Van Home, father
of the Cuba Company Railroad.

Twenty miles further east a' colony has been established
at Victoria de las Tunas, one of the storm centers of the
various revolutionary movements on the part of the
Cubans against Spanish control. There are some 800 or
900 acres of citrus fruit groves, in various stages of pro-
duction, wit